First Peter

I. Introduction

At one point in our lives, we've been unpopular, sometimes even outcasts. We might be alone as individuals or in a group. It's the latter, we might find our "tribe" is "counter-cultural," swimming against the tide of popular opinion. Such feelings and behaviors are not new. Even first century Christians found themselves outside of ancient culture with its polytheism and looser morals. No doubt, they were opposed, even persecuted by their pagan neighbors. To help the beleaguered believers, First Peter appeared in order to strengthen them and give them hope.

Overview

II. Dating: 70-90 CE

A. Author and Audience

1. Author

First Peter listed three figures found in Christian Scripture: Peter, Silvanus and Mark. Peter was the first among the Apostles (Mt 10:1-4, Mt 16:19, Mk 3:13-19, Lk 6:12-16) and, thus, had great influence as a leader in the early Church (Jn 21:15-19, Gal 2:9, Acts 2:14-41). According to tradition, he became bishop of Rome ("Babylon" in 1 Pet 5:13) and died under local persecution by Nero in 64 CE (implied in 1 Clement 5:4, 6:1).

Silvanus ("Silas" in Greek) had a large reputation in the early Church. He accompanied Paul and Barnabas when they returned from the Jerusalem council to Antioch (Acts 15:22). He traveled with Paul as a fellow missionary; in Philippi, they were imprisoned (Acts 16:25-37) then moved on to Thessaloniki to continue their work (Acts 17-18). He appeared in 1 Thes 1:1 and 2 Thes 1:1 and in 2 Cor 1:19 as a co-equal in the efforts of evangelization.

Mark (also known as "John Mark"; see Acts 12:12, Acts 12:25, Acts 13:5, Acts 13:13, Acts 15:37) was the cousin of Barnabas (Col 4:10. Phlm 1:24). He was considered a missionary and a companion (2 Tim 4:11).

The evidence indicated Peter wrote the letter (1 Pet 1:1), Silvanus ("faithful brother") either wrote down Peter's thoughts as a secretary or delivered the missive to the intended communities as a courier (1 Pet 5:12) and Mark had a close relationship with the author ("my son"; 1 Pet 5:13).

However, the writing style of the letter, the geography of the intended audience and the themes within it cast a shadow on the authorship of Peter. Let's consider factors of language:

• Scholars recognize the Greek of First Peter was highly stylized indicating the author spoke Greek as a first language and had some education. The quality of Greek cast doubt on a rural fisherman from Galilee who spoke Greek as a second language could have written such a sophisticated document.

• The author had familiarity with Hebrew Scriptures but quoted from the Septuagint, the standard Greek translation used in the early Church. As a Jew, a Galilean would have known the Scriptures either from the Hebrew or from the vernacular Aramaic (Targum).

• The author was familiar with various traditions emerging with in the early Jesus movement, from Pauline writings and the gospels. This indicated he absorbed these traditions enough to weave them into his letter.

2. Audience

a. Growth on Christianity in the Anatolian Provinces

The author addressed the letter to the Roman provinces in Anatolia (modern day Turkey). By first century CE, the region already had a developed network of roads and some access to seaports. In the Christian Scriptures, St. Paul traveled overland from Antioch to port of Troas on the Aegean Sea (Acts 16:1-10); the route could have been a link in the famous "Silk Road," the trade route that connected the Middle East and the Mediterranean with China. This indicated Roman rule developed a road system that made inland trade and travel possible. By the end of the first century CE, Asia Minor had a thriving Christian population with many local churches well into its interior (Rev 1:4, Rev 2:1, Rev 2:8, Rev 2:12, Rev 2:18, Rev 3:3, Rev 3:7, Rev 3:14).

Because Anatolia formed a peninsula, seafaring allowed travel faster from port to port. On St. Paul's second and third missions, he spent time evangelizing and fortifying the church in Ephesus (54-56 CE; Acts 19:9-10, Acts 19:8, Acts 20:31). We can assume unknown missionaries traveled by ship from ports like Ephesus and Troas, through the Sea of Marmara, and into the Black Sea, visiting ports in the dual province of Bithynia-Pontus thus allowing the faith to grow. In 112 CE, the newly appointed governor of the dual province, Pliny the Younger, wrote to the emperor Trajan about the growth of Christians and the threat they might pose to the established civic order. He also implied a possible solution to the problem, persecution.

For many persons of every age, every rank, and also of both sexes are and will be endangered. For the contagion of this (Christian) superstition has spread not only to the cities but also to the villages and farms. But it seems possible to check and cure it. It is certainly quite clear that the temples, which had been almost deserted, have begun to be frequented, that the established religious rites, long neglected, are being resumed, and that from everywhere sacrificial animals are coming, for which until now very few purchasers could be found.

Pliny the Younger to the Emperor Trajan

With the growth of Christianity in Anatolia, the drop off of pagan religious tourism and trade threatened the local economy. The refusal of Christians to partake in religious holiday celebrations and honor the emperor by burning incense to his bust drew their civic pride and patriotism into question. So, Pliny wrote the Emperor with a simple question: how proactive should he be in prosecuting the followers of Jesus? Trajan responded with caution. Pliny should prosecute only those who adamantly refused to give up their faith, otherwise he should leave believers in peace.

This brief overview gives us a flavor of the situation on the ground in late first century Anatolia. It helps to explain why the author addressed the subject of persecution and suffering in a large portion of his letter.

b. Distribution of the Letter

The author addressed his missive to "the provinces of Pontus, Galatia, Cappadocia, Asia and Bithynia." (1 Pet 1:1). The author tradition has identified as St. Paul addressed the local church in cities (Rom 1:7; 1 Cor 1:2; 2 Cor 1:1; Eph 1:1, Phil 1:1, Col 1:2; 1 Thes 1:1; 2 Thes 1:1) or individuals (1 Tim 1:2; 2 Tim 1:2, Titus 1:4 Phlmn 1:1); the only letter St. Paul wrote to believers in a province was Galatians (Gal 1:2). In most cases, Paul either had direct relationships with the people or he knew their intermediaries (Romans). 1 Peter was different. The author addressed believers in a large area of Anatolia which indicated he did not know his audience personally. In addition, how could effectively address these many believers? Two means were possible. First, a single messenger could travel from church to church to read the letter and answer questions. This, of course, would take an extended length of time. However, the urgency of the message pointed to a second possibility. The author had copies made and sent them to the various provinces through multiple couriers. Thus, he employed scribes in the distribution of the letter.

B. Themes

1. "Salvation of Souls"

First Peter mentioned the term "souls" five times:

• "the salvation of your souls" (1 Pet 1:9)

• "you have purified your souls in your obedience to the truth through the Spirit" (1 Pet 1:22)

• "the Shepherd and Overseer of your souls" (1 Pet 2:25)

• "In (Noah's Ark), few, that is, eight souls, were saved through water. This is a symbol of baptism, which now saves you." (1 Pet 3:20-21)

• "entrust their souls to him, as to a faithful Creator" (1 Pet 4:19)

According to Strong's Dictionary, the term "soul" ("psyche" in Greek) had three definitions that translated different Hebrew words: 1) inner being or life ("nephesh"); 2) breathe or wind ("ruwach"), 3) heart's desire or passion ("chay"). All the above uses of the term in First Peter referred to the first definition. The author defined salvation as the inner being of the believer in relationship with God.

Didn't Jesus come to save the entire person? At the end of First Thessalonians, St. Paul defined personal identity with three aspects:

May your whole spirit ("pnema"), soul ("psyche"), and body ("soma") be preserved blameless at the coming of our Lord Jesus Christ.

1 Thessalonians 5:23

Note St. Paul emphasized the unity ("whole") of the person. He did not see "spirit, soul and body" as separate entities, reflecting the Jewish concept of the person. He also envisioned salvation as the appearance of this unity at the Second Coming. Death, then, was a temporary state ("falling asleep") that would be remedied in the general resurrection (1 Thes 4:13-15).

Dating from late 51 CE, First Thessalonians was one of the earliest books written in the Christian canon. St. Paul wrote it about two decades after the death of Jesus when anticipation of the end times was palpable. However, as figures from the apostolic generation began to die off, excitement about the Second Coming cooled and the notion of salvation morphed. Consider a verse from Matthew (80's CE):

Don't be afraid of those who kill the body, but are not able to kill the soul. Rather, fear him who is able to destroy both soul and body in Gehenna.

Matthew 10:28

Note two changes from this verse. First, Matthew reduced the triple aspect of the person to a dualistic view. The "spirit" (pnema) was lost. In Paul's definition, spirit referred to the life force of the individual but it could also point to the driving impulse that directed a person's actions (the "flesh" vs. the Spirit; see Gal 5:16-18); this sense lined up with "ruwach" as "wind" or "breath.". The latter had social implications; the "spirit" of the person aligned with that of his or her community. So, according to St. Paul, God's Spirit could work in the individual and in the local church (see 1 Cor 2:11; 1 Cor 12:3-7). But the inclusion of one's life or driving force (spirit) was set aside in favor of inner being (soul).

Second, the notion of salvation itself shifted from the unity of the person to the inner being. Salvation meant a life after death. The immediate focus of salvation then became the soul. At the Second Coming, the body would be raised and the person made whole again.

The author of First Peter reflected this shift. He saw salvation as a matter of the afterlife of the soul first, then its full realization at the end of time. The change to "body-soul" roughly aligned with the dualism of Platonic thought which defined the person as a pure entity (soul) trapped in a gross, material body. The disciple of Platonic spirituality wished to transcend the material plane through knowledge (not unlike the Buddhists' goal of nirvana). Such a cultural outlook had some popularity among Gentile prospects in the first century CE.

2. Suffering and the Social Order

The author of First Peter was concerned with cultural conditions in Anatolia. The region enjoyed a rich harvest of evangelization but encountered stiff opposition from pagans. The author responded in two ways. First, he exhorted believers to remain faithful even through trials (1 Pet 1:6-7; 1 Pet 4:12-13). He reminded them to follow the example of Christ in their trouble (1 Pet 1:11; 1 Pet 2:21-25; 1 Pet 3:18; 1 Pet 4:1; 1 Pet 5:9) and to bless opponents (1 Pet 2:23; 1 Pet 3:9; 1 Pet 4:19). For him, suffering for the name of Christ was a blessing (1 Pet 4:14-16).

Second, the author insisted believers act in socially acceptable ways. He encouraged good citizenship (1 Pet 2:13-17). In a slave based economy, he exhorted the chattel to endure their place in with grace and gentleness despite the character of the owners (1 Pet 2:18-25). In a male dominated, gender segregated society, he portrayed husbands as the unquestioned head of the household and wives virtuous servants (1 Pet 3:1-7). He also encouraged good order within the local churches (1 Pet 5:1-11). In his exhortations, he encouraged followers to present themselves as upright citizens as a means of evangelization.

3. The Church as a "Kingdom of Priests, a Holy Nation"

In Pet 2:4-12, the author used Isa 28:16, Psa 118:22 and Isa 8:14 as construction analogies for the local churches. In this way, he shifted the "living stone" analogy away from Christ (1 Pet 2:4; Mt 21:42-44, Acts 4:11, Eph 2:20) to the believers (1 Pet 2:5). He saw the communities, like Christ, as living building stones of God's Temple (see 1 Cor 6:19-20). He also added cultic titles of "a royal priesthood, a holy nation" (see Exo 19:6; Rev 1:6, Rev 5:10, Rev 20:6) whose purpose was "declare the praises of him who called you out of darkness into his wonderful light" (1 Pet 2:9). In other words, the local churches not only had an evangelical function, they were liturgical centers that replaced the need for the Temple in Jerusalem. For, they claimed to enjoy the presence of the Risen Christ in their midst.

C. Dating First Peter

Let's put the various strands of evidence together.

1. The Author

The Galilean fisherman, Simon Peter, could not have directly penned the letter based upon its sophisticated Greek. Indeed, the author quoted from the standard Greek translation of the Hebrew Scriptures, the Septuagint (LXX). This indicated an education in Greek as a first language and some Scriptural background.

2. The Audience

The author wrote to local churches covering a large area of Anatolia. As Pliny's Letter to Trajan implied, this region had become fertile ground for evangelization in the latter half of the first century CE. The size of the area and the urgency of his message indicated he sent out multiple copies thus employing scribes.

3. The Notion of Salvation

The author defined salvation as entrusting the soul (interior entity) in hands of God in the immediate afterlife, then a restoration of the entire person in the general resurrection. This was a shift from an expectation of the imminent return of Christ in Paul's writings.

4. Living in Society

The author also recognized the precarious position of believers in a hostile pagan environment. He responded in two ways. First, he encouraged perseverance by aligning their suffering with the Passion. Second, he exhorted the faithful to adhere to social conventions of the ancient world (marriage and slavery), to be good citizens and to be disciplined in community matters.