IV. Commentary

Commentary Overview

A. Greeting (1:1)

1:1 James, a slave of God and of the Lord Jesus Christ, to the twelve tribes in the Diaspora: Greetings.

In the Dating section, we discussed the identity of the author and his audience. Here, we must address the author's self-described relationship with the divine. He defined himself as a slave. The Greek word used ("doulos") indicated indentured servitude, a condition where the person willingly became the servant to a rich patron for a future advantage (paying off a debt, for example). The use of "slave" meant the author willingly obeyed the will of God without question. In return, the author enjoyed the blessings of communal life and the promise of eternity in the Kingdom.

B. Short Introduction of Themes (1:2-27)

In a series of brief thoughts, the author proposed three practical values for the Christian lifestyle: a steadfast spirit, wisdom and an appreciation of God's blessings. In many cases, he set these in opposition with those with weak character. Notice he wrote 1:2-21 in a somewhat parallel construction but inverted the last two steps to highlight wisdom.

1. Endurance (1:2-4)

2 Count it all joy, my brothers, when you fall into various temptations, 3 knowing that the testing of your faith produces endurance. 4 Let endurance have its perfect work, that you may be perfect and complete, lacking in nothing.

The author extolled the value of endurance, a steadfast spirit in the face of trials. Testing forced believers to redouble their efforts and resulted in a stronger character ("perfect work"). As the faithful gained strength, so did the community (Jas 1:2-4).

2. Seek Wisdom (1:5-8)

5 But if any of you lacks wisdom, let him ask of God, who gives to all liberally and without reproach, and it will be given to him. 6 But let him ask in faith, without any doubting, for he who doubts is like a wave of the sea, driven by the wind and tossed. 7 For that man shouldn't think that he will receive anything from the Lord. 8 He is a double-minded man, unstable in all his ways.

The author implied endurance in the face of trials required wisdom. This was the highest value in Hellenistic culture. Even pagans recognized the divine origin wisdom but assumed it came from age and experience more than the intervention of God. But, the author urged his audience to seek it directly through prayer (Jas 1:5). Those who did not depended upon themselves and second guessed their situation like a ship in a storm (Jas 1:6). Those torn between faith and anxiety did not recognize the spiritual gifts offered them; their personal growth became static (Jas 1:7-8).

3. Temporal Nature of Riches (1:9-11)

9 Let the brother in humble circumstances glory in his high position; 10 and the rich, in that he is made humble, because like the flower in the grass, he will pass away. 11 For the sun arises with the scorching wind and withers the grass; and the flower in it falls, and the beauty of its appearance perishes. So the rich man will also fade away in his pursuits.

The author inverted social expectations of wealth. The poor should boast (Jas 1:9) while the rich should be humble. Why? Because possessions were temporal. The author employed an analogy from nature; the beauty of the blooming flower and the spring grass faded with the approaching heat of summer. Notice objected more to the pursuit of wealth more than its mere possession. The lust for riches will distract the well-to-do believer (Jas 1:10-11). The poor did not face that temptation hence their glory.

4. Endurance During Temptation (1:12-15)

12 Blessed is a person who endures temptation, for when he has been approved, he will receive the crown of life which the Lord promised to those who love him. 13 Let no man say when he is tempted, "I am tempted by God," for God can't be tempted by evil, and he himself tempts no one. 14 But each one is tempted when he is drawn away by his own lust and enticed. 15 Then the lust, when it has conceived, bears sin. The sin, when it is full grown, produces death.

Here, the author returned to the value of endurance as the key to faith (Jas 1:12). Believers who didn't appreciate the virtue might blame God for testing; the author dismissed this notion as absurd (Jas 1:13). Instead, sinners themselves bore direct responsibility for giving into temptation (Jas 1:14) and going down the road to death (Jas 1:15).

5. True Riches: Gifts of God (1:16-18)

16 Don't be deceived, my beloved brothers. 17 Every giving of the good and every perfect gift is from above, coming down from the Father of lights, with whom can be no variation nor turning shadow. 18 Of his own will he gave birth to us by the word of truth, that we should be a kind of first fruits of his creatures.

The author shifted from blaming God for temptation to praising the divine for his kindness. God was unchanging and not capricious (Jas 1:16-17). So, he chose to reveal himself and his message ("word of truth") to the faithful as a definitive renewal ("gave birth to us"; see Jn 3:6-7). Those who believe gained a privileged place among people ("kind of first fruits"; Jas 1:18).

6. Wise Speech (1:19-21)

19 So, then, my beloved brothers, let every man be swift to hear, slow to speak, and slow to anger; 20 for the anger of man doesn't produce the righteousness of God. 21 Therefore, putting away all filthiness and overflowing of wickedness, receive with humility the implanted word, which is able to save your souls.

The author returned to the subject of wisdom with a practical proverb. The wise were acutely aware of their environment but refrained from immediate reaction to it, especially in "knee-jerk" anger. Such an visceral response didn't result in the "righteousness of God" (Jas 1:19-20) That phrase could imply many different things: a standard of moral action, the grace God gives to the believer, the status of the redeemed before the divine Judge now or at the end of time. While the meaning of "righteousness" in this context remained obscure, anger was not the road to it. Indeed, anger produced the opposite, moral "filth" and excess. The antidote to it was the wisdom found in humble faith in the Good News. Only the "implanted" message could save (Jas 1:21)

7. Doers of the Word (1:22-27)

22 But be doers of the word, and not only hearers, deluding your own selves. 23 For if anyone is a hearer of the word and not a doer, he is like a man looking at his natural face in a mirror; 24 for he sees himself, and goes away, and immediately forgets what kind of man he was. 25 But he who looks into the perfect law of freedom and continues, not being a hearer who forgets but a doer of the work, this man will be blessed in what he does.

26 If anyone among you thinks himself to be religious while he doesn't bridle his tongue, but deceives his heart, this man's religion is worthless. 27 Pure religion and undefiled before our God and Father is this: to visit the fatherless and widows in their affliction, and to keep oneself unstained by the world.

The author turned to the pastoral question: how could believers strive for the qualities of endurance, wisdom and spiritual treasures in the face of testing? Put the Good News into action! (Jas 1:22) He highlighted this imperative with an analogy. Self-professed followers who didn't live out the Christian lifestyle were like a man who saw himself in a mirror (affirming his self image) then promptly went on his merry way forgetting who he was (discounting that image; Jas 1:23-24). But the truly faithful constantly reinforce their status as Christian through their high morality and acts of outreach. They receive blessing in the midst of their activities (Jas 1:25).

The author reinforced his call to action with another admonition. Self-professed believers who did not strive for wisdom (see Jas 1:19) brought their faith into question (Jas 1:26). But true believers affirmed their faith through acts of charity and moral living (Jas 1:27).

C. Expanded Themes (2:1-5:20)

1. The question of social status in the community (2:1-13)

2:1 My brothers, don't hold the faith of our glorious Lord Jesus Christ with partiality. 2 For if a man with a gold ring, in fine clothing, comes into your assembly, and a poor man in filthy clothing also comes in, 3 and you pay special attention to him who wears the fine clothing and say, "Sit here in a good place;" and you tell the poor man, "Stand there," or "Sit by my feet" 4 haven't you shown partiality among yourselves, and become judges with evil thoughts? 5 Listen, my beloved brothers. Didn't God choose those who are poor in this world to be rich in faith and heirs of the Kingdom which he promised to those who love him? 6 But you have dishonored the poor man. Don't the rich oppress you and personally drag you before the courts? 7 Don't they blaspheme the honorable name by which you are called?

Now, the author addressed a particle problem in the local churches, the influence of wealth. As human organizations, these communities needed income to sustain their activities. But, did they need to cater to the rich in order to maintain contributions of their largess? The author answered in the negative (Jas 2:1).

Before we delve into his reaction, we need to unpack the scene. Local churches celebrated their shared meals in the Greek fashion of "reclining at table." Guests would lie on their side in a circle around a circular platter. To eat, they would prop themselves up on their left arm and consume their meal by dipping pieces of bread into various sauces. The host would have the place of honor at the banquet; people of influence would "sit" next to him in descending order of importance. That way, everyone knew their place.

Now, back to the example. Consider the leader of a local church who gave the place of honor in the circle to a rich man but told the poor man to stand in the corner or sit at the feet of others outside the circle (Jas 1:2-3). The author couched this example as a rhetorical question. Didn't such preference reveal partiality of a group of believers over another? Wasn't such preference antithetical to the Good News? (Jas 1:4).

To drive his point home, he asked corollary questions. Wasn't the message of salvation specifically preached for the poor? (Jas 1:5) Indeed, didn't the rich among the pagans cause the church the most problems? After all, they had the means to influence the greater community to oppose the faithful and even drag them into court as unpatriotic (Jas 1:6) thus bringing the name "Christian" into disrepute (Jas 1:7).

8 However, if you fulfill the royal law according to the Scripture, "You shall love your neighbor as yourself," you do well. 9 But if you show partiality, you commit sin, being convicted by the law as transgressors. 10 For whoever keeps the whole law, and yet stumbles in one point, he has become guilty of all. 11 For he who said, "Do not commit adultery," also said, "Do not commit murder." Now if you do not commit adultery but do murder, you have become a transgressor of the law. 12 So speak and so do as men who are to be judged by the law of freedom. 13 For judgment is without mercy to him who has shown no mercy. Mercy triumphs over judgment.

The author sharpened his point with the commandment Jesus taught as the heart of the Law, "Love your neighbor as yourself" (Jas 2:8, Lev 19:18; see Mt 19:19, Mt 22:39, Mk 12:31, Lk 10:27, Rom 13:19, Gal 5:14). But, then, he accused those who showed such partiality of sin (Jas 2:9); as such, these leaders broke the entire Law (Jas 2:10) on the same level as adulterers and murderers (Jas 2:11; Exo 20:14, Deu 5:18; Exo 20:13, Deu 5:17). So, the author encouraged leaders of the local communities promote the message ("law of freedom") in word and deed. Treat all, not some, but all with deference and respect. After all, divine mercy trumped human judgment (Jas 2:12-13).

2. Doers of the Word (2:14-26)

14 What good is it, my brothers, if a man says he has faith, but has no works? Can faith save him? 15 And if a brother or sister is naked and in lack of daily food, 16 and one of you tells them, "Go in peace. Be warmed and filled;" yet you didn't give them the things the body needs, what good is it? 17 Even so faith, if it has no works, is dead in itself. 18 Yes, a man will say, "You have faith, and I have works." Show me your faith without works, and I will show you my faith by my works.

Here, the author compared those who assert faith with those who act on it. He questioned the efficacy of salvation among the former (Jas 2:14). Those who claimed to be Christian but didn't live up to these standards were two dimensional, even hardhearted in addressing the needs of the poor. Their assertion to belief rang hollow (Jas 2:15-17) even to non-believers. To them, the faith of the "Christians in name only" could be dismissed as "dead" but they couldn't ignore the example of believers who took their calling seriously (Jas 2:18).

19 You believe that God is one. You do well. The demons also believe—and shudder. 20 But do you want to know, vain man, that faith apart from works is dead? 21 Wasn't Abraham our father justified by works, in that he offered up Isaac his son on the altar? 22 You see that faith worked with his works, and by works faith was perfected. 23 So the Scripture was fulfilled which says, "Abraham believed God, and it was accounted to him as righteousness," and he was called the friend of God. 24 You see then that by works a man is justified, and not only by faith. 25 In the same way, wasn't Rahab the prostitute also justified by works when she received the messengers and sent them out another way? 26 For as the body apart from the spirit is dead, even so faith apart from works is dead.

The author went on the offensive against those who professed faith without acting on it. He made two different arguments. First, he aligned them with the faith of the demons (Jas 2:19). Those who stop at the assertion "God is One" had a faith as dead as the damned (Jas 2:20). Second, he pointed to two figures from Scripture who acted upon their faith, Abraham and Rahab. The former had his faith tested to offer his son, Isaac, up to God (Jas 2:21) The struggle that the patriarch faced strengthened his resolve ("by works his faith was perfected"; Jas 2:22) and, thus, raised him above his peers as a "friend of God" (Jas 2:23; Gen 15:6). So, the assertion of faith without "works" does not justify one's place before God (Jas 2:24)

The author returned to another figure in the Hebrew Scriptures, Rahab (Jas 2:25). She was a prostitute in Jericho who was instrumental in the fall of the city to the Israelites (see Josh 2:1-24). Then, the writer summed up with a sharp analogy. Faith without works was like a dead body that was not animated by one's spirit (Jas 2:26).

3. Wisdom (3:1-4:10)

a. Control of the Tongue (3:1-12)

3:1 Let not many of you be teachers, my brothers, knowing that we will receive heavier judgment. 2 For we all stumble in many things. Anyone who doesn't stumble in word is a perfect person, able to bridle the whole body also. 3 Indeed, we put bits into the horses' mouths so that they may obey us, and we guide their whole body. 4 Behold, the ships also, though they are so big and are driven by fierce winds, are yet guided by a very small rudder, wherever the pilot desires. 5 So the tongue is also a little member, and boasts great things. See how a small fire can spread to a large forest! 6 And the tongue is a fire. The world of iniquity among our members is the tongue, which defiles the whole body, and sets on fire the course of nature, and is set on fire by Gehenna. 7 For every kind of animal, bird, creeping thing, and sea creature is tamed, and has been tamed by mankind; 8 but nobody can tame the tongue. It is a restless evil, full of deadly poison. 9 With it we bless our God and Father, and with it we curse men who are made in the image of God. 10 Out of the same mouth comes blessing and cursing. My brothers, these things ought not to be so. 11 Does a spring send out from the same opening fresh and bitter water? 12 Can a fig tree, my brothers, yield olives, or a vine figs? Thus no spring yields both salt water and fresh water.

After he warned his audience about the price of teaching (Jas 3:1), the author expanded his exhortation to control speech (see Jas 1:19-21). Those who master the tongue have the virtue of self-control in other areas of life (Jas 3:2). Here, he employed analogies about small things controlling large events like training a horse with a bridle (Jas 3:3), navigating a ship with a rudder (Jas 3:4) and a blazing forest caused by a careless campfire (Jas 3:5).

Speech had the power to change the environment for the worse. It could even lead people to eternal condemnation (Jas 3:6). While humanity had gained some control over nature (Jas 3:7), people could not reign in the tongue. They use it to praise God yet poison public discourse with ill judgments. Indeed, people curse others who were also made in the divine image (Jas 3:8-9). Then, the author implied a rhetorical question: why should this be? To drive home his point, he shifted to another set of analogies from nature, the fresh water spring and figs. The spring does not produce poison of salt water, the fig tree does not bear olives nor a vine bear figs (Jas 3:10-12).

b. True Wisdom is from Above (3:13-18)

13 Who is wise and understanding among you? Let him show by his good conduct that his deeds are done in gentleness of wisdom. 14 But if you have bitter jealousy and selfish ambition in your heart, don't boast and don't lie against the truth. 15 This wisdom is not that which comes down from above, but is earthly, sensual, and demonic. 16 For where jealousy and selfish ambition are, there is confusion and every evil deed. 17 But the wisdom that is from above is first pure, then peaceful, gentle, reasonable, full of mercy and good fruits, without partiality, and without hypocrisy. 18 Now the fruit of righteousness is sown in peace by those who make peace.

After his diatribe against the loose tongue, the author challenged his audience to seek wisdom. He implicitly compared the results of true wisdom vs. a false sense of self importance. The former produced gentleness and peace (Jas 3:13, Jas 3:18) while the latter resulted in jealousy and ambition. Those who faced these temptations should control their speech; they should refrain from boasting and denying the facts (Jas 3:14). True wisdom was a divine gift ("from above") while self importance found its roots in darker concerns ("earthly, sensual and demonic"). Selfishness resulted in disorder and other evil acts that could destroy (Jas 3:16) while true wisdom produced virtues that unified the community, such as peace, mercy, charitable acts, fairness and sincerity (Jas 3:17).

c. Against In-fighting (4:1-10)

4:1 Where do battles and quarrels among you come from? Don't they come from your pleasures that war in your members? 2 You lust, and don't have. You murder and covet, and can't obtain. You fight and make war. You don't have, because you don't ask. 3 You ask, and don't receive, because you ask with wrong motives, so that you may spend it on your pleasures. 4 You adulterers and adulteresses, don't you know that friendship with the world is hostility toward God? Whoever therefore wants to be a friend of the world makes himself an enemy of God. 5 Or do you think that the Scripture says in vain, "The Spirit who lives in us yearns jealously"? 6 But he gives more grace. Therefore it says, "God resists the proud, but gives grace to the humble." 7 Be subject therefore to God. Resist the devil, and he will flee from you. 8 Draw near to God, and he will draw near to you. Cleanse your hands, you sinners. Purify your hearts, you double-minded. 9 Lament, mourn, and weep. Let your laughter be turned to mourning and your joy to gloom. 10 Humble yourselves in the sight of the Lord, and he will exalt you.

After the exhortation for wisdom, the author turned to the petty infighting many communities faced. He asked two questions. The first laid bare the problem (Jas 4:1); the second insinuated the root cause was selfishness (Jas 4:2). Then he listed a series of accusatory "you" statements about the results of self-seeking. Uncontrolled desire led to destruction ("murder"), coveting led to quarrels, assumptions ("do not ask") led to voids ("do not receive"), self-focused prayers ("ask") weren't answered due to the intent of the petitioners (Jas 4:2-3). He pointed out the hollow promises of general culture ("the world"); its values were antithetical with the Christian life ("friend with the world...an enemy of God"; Jas 4:4). He summed up his accusations with two quotes. The first one he claimed was from Scripture addressed the jealous nature of the Spirit (Jas 4:5) The second came from Pro 3:34 which urged humility in the face of temptation (Jas 4:6). Notice the author implied the root cause of infighting was pride; its antidote was a humble heart.

The author proposed a list of imperatives to combat selfishness. Obey God, resist evil, focus on spiritual growth, seek a higher morality ("cleanse your hands") and become single-minded (Jas 4:7-8). Mourn (implicitly, the author encouraged his audience to turn away from "laughter" and "joys" of general culture for those that came from above; Jas 4:9). Above all, stand humbled before God and depend upon him for exaltation (Jas 4:10).

4. Doers of the Word, Not its Judge (4:11-12)

11 Don't speak against one another, brothers. He who speaks against a brother and judges his brother, speaks against the law and judges the law. But if you judge the law, you are not a doer of the law but a judge. 12 Only one is the lawgiver, who is able to save and to destroy. But who are you to judge another?

The author warned against the temptation to judge others. Here, he implied gossiping or slandering a fellow Christian violated the Law (see Lev 19:18). Such talk made one a judge and didn't promote spiritual growth ("not a doer of the Law"; Jas 4:11). Only God could judge not the believer (Jas 4:12).

5. Transient Nature of Wealth (4:13-5:6)

13 Come now, you who say, "Today or tomorrow let's go into this city and spend a year there, trade, and make a profit." 14 Yet you don't know what your life will be like tomorrow. For what is your life? For you are a vapor that appears for a little time and then vanishes away. 15 For you ought to say, "If the Lord wills, we will both live, and do this or that." 16 But now you glory in your boasting. All such boasting is evil. 17 To him therefore who knows to do good and doesn't do it, to him it is sin.

The author returned to his critique of the wealthy. He implicitly addressed the false sense of permanence possessions could bring. He rightly pointed out the pride that gird such a sense (Jas 4:13). Then, he stated the true nature of life in the world: change. Indeed, life, like wealth, was transitory (Jas 4:14). The only reality that lasted was God; the believer should depend upon his will (Jas 4:15). So, plans without seeking a part in God's plan was hollow boasting and led to self-centered sin (Jas 4:16). Here, the author returned to his belief about those who sought the values of the world; those who knew the right way to act and failed to act sinned (Jas 4:17; see Jas 4:1-4).

5:1 Come now, you rich, weep and howl for your miseries that are coming on you. 2 Your riches are corrupted and your garments are moth-eaten. 3 Your gold and your silver are corroded, and their corrosion will be for a testimony against you and will eat your flesh like fire. You have laid up your treasure in the last days. 4 Behold, the wages of the laborers who mowed your fields, which you have kept back by fraud, cry out; and the cries of those who reaped have entered into the ears of the Lord of Armies. 5 You have lived in luxury on the earth, and taken your pleasure. You have nourished your hearts as in a day of slaughter. 6 You have condemned and you have murdered the righteous one. He doesn't resist you.

Now, the author turned his warnings against those who sought wealth into a diatribe. The wealthy should mourn over their future (Jas 5:1). Not only were their riches transitory, their wealth would face decay and corrosion and lose value over time; the fate of these possessions stood as a metaphor for the future of the wealth seekers ("fire"; Jas 5:2-3). Those who claimed to be Christian yet cheated their employees out of their due would implicitly face divine judgment (Jas 5:4). These lived for the pleasures of the present day and ignored the judgment they would face day of the Lord ("day of slaughter"; Jas 5:5). The author summed up his fury by accusing those who lusted for wealth as the judges and executioners of the defenseless Christ himself (Jas 5:6).

6. Patience and Perseverance (5:7-11)

7 Be patient therefore, brothers, until the coming of the Lord. Behold, the farmer waits for the precious fruit of the earth, being patient over it, until it receives the early and late rain. 8 You also be patient. Establish your hearts, for the coming of the Lord is at hand. 9 Don't grumble, brothers, against one another, so that you won't be judged. Behold, the judge stands at the door.

10 Take, brothers, for an example of suffering and of perseverance, the prophets who spoke in the name of the Lord. 11 Behold, we call them blessed who endured. You have heard of the perseverance of Job and have seen the Lord in the outcome, and how the Lord is full of compassion and mercy.

The author addressed two virtues with respect to the end times, patience and perseverance. First, he urged his audience to be patient with an agricultural metaphor for a fruit harvest. Be patient yet call upon inner strength for the Second Coming was immanent (Jas 5:7-8). What did this mean in practical terms? Patience had a communal sense; it mean not only waiting on the Lord, it also meant refraining from negative comments about other Christians which the author implied would so be judged (Jas 5:9).

Next, the author encouraged his audience to persevere with two references to the Hebrew Scriptures. The prophets endured in the face of fierce opposition and were called "blessed." Job also suffered. Yet, in the end, God revealed his "compassion and mercy" (see Exo 34:6, Neh 9:17, Psa 86:15, Psa 102:13, Joel 2:13, Jon 4:2) on those who stayed true to their call (Jas 5:10-11).

7. On Taking Oaths (5:12)

12 But above all things, my brothers, don't swear, not by heaven, or by the earth, or by any other oath; but let your "yes" be "yes", and your "no", "no", so that you don't fall into hypocrisy.

In this brief verse, the author exhorted believers in the same way Jesus did in Mt 5:37.

8. Anointing of the Sick (5:13-18)

13 Is any among you suffering? Let him pray. Is any cheerful? Let him sing praises. 14 Is any among you sick? Let him call for the elders of the assembly, and let them pray over him, anointing him with oil in the name of the Lord; 15 and the prayer of faith will heal him who is sick, and the Lord will raise him up. If he has committed sins, he will be forgiven. 16 Confess your sins to one another and pray for one another, that you may be healed. The insistent prayer of a righteous person is powerfully effective. 17 Elijah was a man with a nature like ours, and he prayed earnestly that it might not rain, and it didn't rain on the earth for three years and six months. 18 He prayed again, and the sky gave rain, and the earth produced its fruit.

In this passage, the author spoke to the needs of the sick and the power of prayer. When someone in the community fell to illness, he encouraged its leaders ("elders") to gather, pray over the ill person and anoint him or her with oil "in the name of the Lord." This ritual would have three effects, healing, the promise of the resurrection and the forgiveness of sins (Jas 5:13-15). Indeed, admission of wrong doing with the power of prayer could heal the soul (Jas 5:16). The author recalled the prayers of Elijah to make his point. The petitions of the prophet first produced a drought (1 Kings 17:1) then its relief (1 Kings 17:41-45).

9. Saving a Sinner (5:19-20)

19 Brothers, if any among you wanders from the truth and someone turns him back, 20 let him know that he who turns a sinner from the error of his way will save a soul from death and will cover a multitude of sins.

The author ended the letter on a note of hope. Those who influence a backslider to return to the ways of the Church participated in the salvation of the sinner. In doing so, he will also receive forgiveness (Jas 5:19-20). In a sense, the person who cooperated with the Spirit to bring back the backslider shared in the benefits the sinner received. God renewed the salvation of both people.

V. Conclusion

The letter of James stood out among the books of Christian Scripture as almost pure exhortation. The author assumed his audience suffered from a spiritual malaise. He sought to shake them from their doldrums towards a higher calling, spiritual growth based upon acts of charity and high moral character. As he beckoned his audience then, he challenges us today. Does our behavior reflect our trust in the Risen One? Do our acts justify our calling as disciples? When we honestly answer those questions, we will know if we deserve the title "Christian" or not.

Sources

"World English Bible with Deuterocanonical: James." EBible.org - read and download the Holy Bible. EBible, Web. http://ebible.org/web/HEB01.html. (The free source text used in the commentary above.)

Stergiou, Costas. TheWord.net. Computer software. Vers. 6.0. TheWord.net. 2015. 2015 (http://theword.net/).

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Novum Testamentum Graece. theWord.net module. Vers. NA27. (theWord.net).

Just SJ, Felix. "Epistle of James." Catholic Resources - Felix Just, S.J.. Web. 5 Apr 2023. http://catholic-resources.org/Bible/Epistles-James.htm.

John P., Meier. "Prohibition on Oaths." A Marginal Jew, Rethinking the Historical Jesus. 4. New Haven & London: Yale University Press, 2009. 198-206. Print.

John P., Meier. "Widening the Focus: The Love Commandments of Jesus." A Marginal Jew, Rethinking the Historical Jesus. 4. New Haven & London: Yale University Press, 2009. 572-576. Print.