Romans

Overview

I. Introduction

The majority of biblical scholars have called St. Paul's letter to the Romans a tour de force. In his missive, the apostle answered the question: how could Gentiles be saved? He could have postulated a theory of implicit superiority for the Chosen people where non-Jewish believers had a relationship with YHWH through the Law. In this sense, the Messiah would have been true "Teacher of Righteousness" (to borrow a phrase from the Essenes), interpreting the Torah for all peoples but still giving place and privilege to the natural descendants of the patriarchs. Paul, however, chose a different path; he proposed the audacious and radical notion that salvation lie outside the Law in a faith allegiance with Christ. In his mind, Gentile and Jew alike were guilty before God (3:1-20); both found equal standing before (3:21-4:25) and reconciliation with God (5:1-8:39) in Christ. Indeed, he held Jew and Gentile depended upon each other to realize the universality of salvation despite opposition from non-believing Jews (9:1-11:36). For Paul, Jew and Gentiles were equal; former pagans were not second-class citizens in God's Kingdom.

Paul implicitly addressed two groups in Romans, 1) Jewish-Christian teachers who treated Gentiles as inferior (1:18-2:29) and 2) Gentile-Christians who lacked respect for their Jewish brethren with regard to eating meat offered to idols (14:1-23). In both cases, he reminded the faithful at Rome that their duty lie in living to the ideal, a community of believers that lived in harmony as equals and, thus, in peace with outsiders (12:14-13:14). They were to worship God together as the eschatological community (15:1-13).

II. Dating. Winter of 56-57 in "Greece" (most likely Corinth).

See the commentary in 15:22-29 for details.

III. Structure

Without the opening (1:1-17) and the miscellaneous details in the ending (15:14-16:27), the core outline of Romans formed a simple chiastic structure (ABCCBA). At the letter's height, Paul argued for the reconciliation of humanity with God and the interdependence of Jew and Gentile in the divine plan of salvation. Faith within a community of disciples made reconciliation and interdependence possible.

Overview Directory

IV. Synopsis and Commentary

The translation used in the text comes from the World English Bible. I translated periodic verses as examples in the context of the commentary.

A. Greeting (1:1-7) and Thanksgiving (1:8-17)

1 Paul, a servant of Jesus Christ, called to be an apostle, set apart for the Good News of God, 2 which he promised before through his prophets in the holy Scriptures, 3 concerning his Son, who was born of the offspring of David according to the flesh, 4 who was declared to be the Son of God with power according to the Spirit of holiness, by the resurrection from the dead, Jesus Christ our Lord, 5 through whom we received grace and apostleship for obedience of faith among all the nations for his name's sake; 6 among whom you are also called to belong to Jesus Christ; 7 to all who are in Rome, beloved of God, called to be saints: Grace to you and peace from God our Father and the Lord Jesus Christ.

Paul began his letter to the Romans with a chiastic structure:

A1: identifying himself as an apostle (Rom 1:1)

B: a summary of the gospel (Rom 1:2-4)

A2: affirming his apostleship and those fellow believers (Rom 1:5-7)

He directed his missive to the church in Rome with his standard phrase: "Grace and peace to you from God our Father and the Lord Jesus Christ."

8 First, I thank my God through Jesus Christ for all of you, that your faith is proclaimed throughout the whole world. 9 For God is my witness, whom I serve in my spirit in the Good News of his Son, how unceasingly I make mention of you always in my prayers, 10 requesting, if by any means now at last I may be prospered by the will of God to come to you. 11 For I long to see you, that I may impart to you some spiritual gift, to the end that you may be established; 12 that is, that I with you may be encouraged in you, each of us by the other's faith, both yours and mine.

13 Now I don't desire to have you unaware, brothers, that I often planned to come to you (and was hindered so far), that I might have some fruit among you also, even as among the rest of the Gentiles. 14 I am debtor both to Greeks and to foreigners, both to the wise and to the foolish. 15 So as much as is in me, I am eager to preach the Good News to you also who are in Rome.

16 For I am not ashamed of the Good News of Christ, because it is the power of God for salvation for everyone who believes, for the Jew first, and also for the Greek. 17 For in it is revealed God's righteousness from faith to faith. As it is written, "But the righteous shall live by faith."

Paul continued with a prayer of thanksgiving and his plans to visit the church in Rome based upon its good reputation. He wanted to help in the evangelizing efforts there and share spiritual strengthening that came through fellowship (Rom 1:8-15). He concluded with his thesis: the equality of Jew and Greek through the God-given gift of faith (Rom 1:16-17).

B. Equality before God (1:18-15:13) (Structure ABCCBA)

1. Parallel 1a: Jews and Gentiles alike are guilty (1:18-3:20)

Parallel Links

a. A1: Jewish social critique of the Gentiles (1:18-32)

18 For the wrath of God is revealed from heaven against all ungodliness and unrighteousness of men who suppress the truth in unrighteousness, 19 because that which is known of God is revealed in them, for God revealed it to them. 20 For the invisible things of him since the creation of the world are clearly seen, being perceived through the things that are made, even his everlasting power and divinity, that they may be without excuse. 21 Because knowing God, they didn't glorify him as God, and didn't give thanks, but became vain in their reasoning, and their senseless heart was darkened.

22 Professing themselves to be wise, they became fools, 23 and traded the glory of the incorruptible God for the likeness of an image of corruptible man, and of birds, four-footed animals, and creeping things. 24 Therefore God also gave them up in the lusts of their hearts to uncleanness, that their bodies should be dishonored among themselves; 25 who exchanged the truth of God for a lie, and worshiped and served the creature rather than the Creator, who is blessed forever. Amen.

Paul began his thesis when he noted the unrighteousness of Jew and Gentile alike. He started with a popular view Jews had of the pagan morality. No non-Jew was right with God since they saw his handiwork in creation and still refused to give him honor or thanks. Instead, they attributed the works of the divine to forces of nature they worshiped in the form of idols. Even though they could clearly see signposts to the Creator in cosmos, they blinded themselves and their hearts became dark (Rom 1:18-23). When they praised the ways of nature, they attempted to imitate its processes through pagan fertility rites and even in perverse ways (Rom 1:24-25).

26 For this reason, God gave them up to vile passions. For their women changed the natural function into that which is against nature. 27 Likewise also the men, leaving the natural function of the woman, burned in their lust toward one another, men doing what is inappropriate with men, and receiving in themselves the due penalty of their error. 28 Even as they refused to have God in their knowledge, God gave them up to a reprobate mind, to do those things which are not fitting; 29 being filled with all unrighteousness, sexual immorality, wickedness, covetousness, malice; full of envy, murder, strife, deceit, evil habits, secret slanderers, 30 backbiters, hateful to God, insolent, arrogant, boastful, inventors of evil things, disobedient to parents, 31 without understanding, covenant breakers, without natural affection, unforgiving, unmerciful; 32 who, knowing the ordinance of God, that those who practice such things are worthy of death, not only do the same, but also approve of those who practice them.

In Rom 1:26-27, Paul proceeded to describe the activities of pagan rites in terms of sexual orgies where people might feel free to experiment in parings that they might not engage in their daily lives.  He used these verses as a bridge to a larger set of immoral acts described in Rom 1:28-32.

In 1:18-32, Paul laid out a social critique many of his fellow Jews might have made against the pagans. Gentile idolatry led to sexually perverse acts (free-wheeling orgies that didn't discriminate between sexual parings) and to all other sorts of immoral acts rampant in society. Deep down, these critics held, pagans knew they stood condemned but they insisted upon partaking in anyway. In the face of this view, the apostle implicitly asked a question: was this critique fair?

b. B1: Judgment of God on those prejudiced against Gentiles (2:1-16)

1 Therefore you are without excuse, O man, whoever you are who judge. For in that which you judge another, you condemn yourself. For you who judge practice the same things. 2 We know that the judgment of God is according to truth against those who practice such things. 3 Do you think this, O man who judges those who practice such things, and do the same, that you will escape the judgment of God? 4 Or do you despise the riches of his goodness, forbearance, and patience, not knowing that the goodness of God leads you to repentance? 5 But according to your hardness and unrepentant heart you are treasuring up for yourself wrath in the day of wrath, revelation, and of the righteous judgment of God, 6 who "will pay back to everyone according to their works:" 7 to those who by perseverance in well-doing seek for glory, honor, and incorruptibility, eternal life; 8 but to those who are self-seeking and don't obey the truth, but obey unrighteousness, will be wrath, indignation, 9 oppression, and anguish on every soul of man who does evil, to the Jew first, and also to the Greek.

10 But glory, honor, and peace go to every man who does good, to the Jew first, and also to the Greek. 11 For there is no partiality with God. 12 For as many as have sinned without the law will also perish without the law. As many as have sinned under the law will be judged by the law. 13 For it isn't the hearers of the law who are righteous before God, but the doers of the law will be justified 14 (for when Gentiles who don't have the law do by nature the things of the law, these, not having the law, are a law to themselves, 15 in that they show the work of the law written in their hearts, their conscience testifying with them, and their thoughts among themselves accusing or else excusing them) 16 in the day when God will judge the secrets of men, according to my Good News, by Jesus Christ.

In 2:1-5, Paul answered his question with a resounding "No." Those who judged partook in the very thing they condemned (Rom 2:1) simply because, through their focus on the immoral, they reveled in it. (Don't those who constantly dwell on perversion to condemn it in a sense promote it?) The apostle recognized the righteousness of God's judgment, but also equated the sinner and the human judge on the same plane; both stood under God's sentence. The human judges might intellectually presume God's mercy but would harden their heart through obsessive judgment; they would receive God's wrath along that of the unrepentant sinner (Rom 2:2-5).

Paul continued this theme when he restated the impartiality of God's judgment. The selfless would receive glory, Jew first then Greek; in the same way, the self-obsessed would receive condemnation (Rom 2:6-11). The Jews had the Law to measure their righteousness which required action, not mere presence at the synagogue when the Torah was read. The Gentiles might not have the Law but, if they followed a well formed conscience ("the work of the Law written on their hearts" Rom 2:15), they would do good deeds and, thus, receive God's favor. Or, as Rom 2:16 stated, "...on the day when God will judge the secrets of men (both Jew and Gentile) according to my gospel through Christ Jesus." (Rom 2:12-16).

Notice the shift to the second person singular ("you," highlighted with the vocative "O man" in Rom 2:1, 3) from the third person plural ("they") in Rom 1:18-32. In this section and the next, Paul made a pointed attack on those within the community who implicitly or explicitly maintained the superiority of the Jew over the Gentile, thus making the non-Jewish believer a second class Christian. With the shift in person, the apostle slammed the leadership in a personal and direct way.

c. A2: Paul's critique of Jewish-Christian teachers (2:17-29)

17 Indeed you bear the name of a Jew, rest on the law, glory in God, 18 know his will, and approve the things that are excellent, being instructed out of the law, 19 and are confident that you yourself are a guide of the blind, a light to those who are in darkness, 20 a corrector of the foolish, a teacher of babies, having in the law the form of knowledge and of the truth. 21 You therefore who teach another, don't you teach yourself? You who preach that a man shouldn't steal, do you steal? 22 You who say a man shouldn't commit adultery, do you commit adultery? You who abhor idols, do you rob temples? 23 You who glory in the law, do you dishonor God by disobeying the law? 24 For "the name of God is blasphemed among the Gentiles because of you," just as it is written. 25 For circumcision indeed profits, if you are a doer of the law, but if you are a transgressor of the law, your circumcision has become uncircumcision. 26 If therefore the uncircumcised keep the ordinances of the law, won't his uncircumcision be accounted as circumcision? 27 Won't those who are physically uncircumcised, but fulfill the law, judge you, who with the letter and circumcision are a transgressor of the law? 28 For he is not a Jew who is one outwardly, neither is that circumcision which is outward in the flesh; 29 but he is a Jew who is one inwardly, and circumcision is that of the heart, in the spirit, not in the letter; whose praise is not from men, but from God.

Paul turned his focus on Jewish scholars within the community, the learned who studied the Torah and who proudly acted as its teachers. He asked the same question he posed in Rom 2:1-5. Don't those who instruct others, casting a critical eye on the sinner, somehow take part in the sin? Do those who condemn the thief steal? Do those who chastise the adulterer cheat in marriage? Do those who reject idols plunder pagan temples, thus enjoying the fruits of idolatrous worship? In other words, the hyper-religious who judged sinners constantly and without mercy put the sin, not God, front and center; in doing so, they committed the idolatry they abhorred (Rom 2:17-23). Because of these leaders, the pagans blasphemed God (Isa 52:2; Rom 2:24).

After his condemnation of Jewish-Christian teachers, Paul addressed the sign of their self-declared superiority: circumcision. Cutting the foreskin demarcated the line between the Jew and the Gentile, setting aside one as a member of the Chosen People. Yet, the apostle saw no advantage. The Jew who broke the Law had no better standing than the Gentile who wallowed in sin. The heathen who acted in ways that keep the Torah could judge the sinning Jew. So, Paul contended, circumcision was not confined to a physical sign. No, it was a matter of the heart by the power of the Spirit (Rom 2:25-29).

d. B2: Judgment of God on Jew and Gentile alike (3:1-20)

1 Then what advantage does the Jew have? Or what is the profit of circumcision? 2 Much in every way! Because first of all, they were entrusted with the revelations of God. 3 For what if some were without faith? Will their lack of faith nullify the faithfulness of God? 4 May it never be! Yes, let God be found true, but every man a liar. As it is written,

"that you might be justified in your words,
and might prevail when you come into judgment."

Now, Paul addressed the advantages of Judaism (Rom 3:1-4). The God of Abraham, Isaac and Jacob reveled himself to and cared for his people. He was faithful to his people, despite their disobedience. They carried the message of YHWH, despite perversions many Jews made of the Scriptures. God remained true to his word, despite their faithlessness (quoting Psa 54:4 in Rom 3:4).

5 But if our unrighteousness commends the righteousness of God, what will we say? Is God unrighteous who inflicts wrath? I speak like men do. 6 May it never be! For then how will God judge the world? 7 For if the truth of God through my lie abounded to his glory, why am I also still judged as a sinner? 8 Why not (as we are slanderously reported, and as some affirm that we say), "Let's do evil, that good may come?" Those who say so are justly condemned.

9 What then? Are we better than they? No, in no way. For we previously warned both Jews and Greeks that they are all under sin.

However, did the immoral acts of God's people make YHWH culpable? No. Paul continued with a set of questions to separate the divine from human immorality. First, doesn't the problem of evil in the world, the "unrighteousness" of people, prove the duplicity of God in evil? No, if so, he could not stand above evil and judge the world as its master. Second, if good comes from evil, thus giving God glory, why were people being condemned? Implicitly, the apostle recognized the absurdity of the question; the good that came from evil only resulted from the beneficence of God; the good did not relieve the sinner of responsibility for their actions (Rom 3:5-9).

As it is written,

"There is no one righteous;
no, not one.
11 There is no one who understands.
There is no one who seeks after God.
12 They have all turned away.
They have together become unprofitable.
There is no one who does good,
no, not so much as one."
13 "Their throat is an open tomb.
With their tongues they have used deceit."
"The poison of vipers is under their lips."
14 "Their mouth is full of cursing and bitterness."
15 "Their feet are swift to shed blood.
16 Destruction and misery are in their ways.
17 The way of peace, they haven't known."
18 "There is no fear of God before their eyes."

19 Now we know that whatever things the law says, it speaks to those who are under the law, that every mouth may be closed, and all the world may be brought under the judgment of God. 20 Because by the works of the law, no flesh will be justified in his sight; for through the law comes the knowledge of sin.

Finally, Paul stressed the equality of Jew and Gentile as guilty "under sin" (Rom 3:9), citing a long list of Scripture verses:

1) Everyone was a sinner (Rom 3:10-12 quoting Psa 14:1-3).

2) The cursing and bitterness of the sinner's speech poured out "poison and death" (Rom 3:13-14 quoting Psa 5:9, Psa 140:3 and Psa 10:7)

3) The vile acts of the sinner resulted in violence, not peace (Rom 3:15-17 quoting Isa 59:7-8)

4) The sinner had no regard for YHWH ("fear of God" in Rom 3:18 quoting Psa 36:1)

By quoting this list of verses, Paul mirrored the social critique Jews made against Gentiles in Rom 1:18-32. But, this time he charged everyone, Jew and Gentile alike, of immorality; all stood under the Law (Rom 3:19). "Hence, by the works of the Law all flesh will not be considered righteous before HIM, for through (the ) Law (is the) recognition of sin" (Rom 3:20).

2. Chiasmus 2a: Faith made Jews and Gentiles equal (3:21-4:25)

Faith Links

a. Step A1: Jews and Gentiles equal under Jesus' faithfulness (3:21-26)

21 But now apart from the law, a righteousness of God has been revealed, being testified by the law and the prophets; 22 even the righteousness of God through faith in Jesus Christ to all and on all those who believe. For there is no distinction, 23 for all have sinned, and fall short of the glory of God; 24 being justified freely by his grace through the redemption that is in Christ Jesus, 25 whom God sent to be an atoning sacrifice through faith in his blood, for a demonstration of his righteousness through the passing over of prior sins, in God's forbearance; 26 to demonstrate his righteousness at this present time, that he might himself be just and the justifier of him who has faith in Jesus.

Paul argued that 1) the Law only gave knowledge of immorality not righteousness, 2) both Jew and Gentile broke the Law ("fell short of the glory of God" in Rom 3:23), so 3) a right relationship came as a free gift from God through the death of Jesus Christ. One could only realize this offer through a faith allegiance with Christ. Paul emphasized that only God was "just and justifier"; salvation came about only through divine initiative (Rom 3:21-26).

The core of Paul's argument lie in Rom 3:24-25; these verses required some unpacking. In Rom 3:24, the apostle held justification of the sinner only came about through the gracious gift of redemption Jesus paid. In other words, when the sinner was baptized, they received the grace ("charis" in Greek) that wiped away any guilt for personal or corporate ("Original") sins; Christ paid the divine "ransom" for humanity on the cross.

"...God set forth the hilasterion through faith in his blood, in the declaration of his righteousness through the remission of sins having transpired." (3:25)

In Rom 3:25, Paul employed the term "hilasterion" either referring to a "place of satisfaction" where God's wrath was satiated (translated as "propitiation") or, more like, to the "mercy seat" or lid to the Ark of the Covenant, symbolizing the presence of YHWH (translated as "expiation"). In the later sense, the mercy seat recalled Yom Kippur, the "Day of Atonement" when Jews sought reconciliation with God. According to tradition, Jews believed YHWH wrote the deeds of all in the "Book of Life" for the coming year; Yom Kippur gave the faithful a last chance to seek divine forgiveness before the chapter of the past year was permanently closed. As part of the ceremony in the Second Temple period, the high priest would enter the Holy of Holies and sprinkle bull's blood (for the sins of himself and his family, later with goat's blood (for the sins of the nation; Lev 16:14-16). In Rom 3:25, Paul used this sprinkling ceremony in an allegorical sense, prefiguring the blood Christ shed on the cross so that God would remit the past transgressions of humanity; the Christian realized the "mercy seat" through faith in the redemptive act of the Crucifixion. Hence, "the hilasterion through faith in his blood."

b. Step B1: God who justifies Jew and Gentile through faith (3:27-31)

27 Where then is the boasting? It is excluded. By what kind of law? Of works? No, but by a law of faith. 28 We maintain therefore that a man is justified by faith apart from the works of the law. 29 Or is God the God of Jews only? Isn't he the God of Gentiles also? Yes, of Gentiles also, 30 since indeed there is one God who will justify the circumcised by faith and the uncircumcised through faith.

31 Do we then nullify the law through faith? May it never be! No, we establish the law.

Paul summarized his argument by emphasizing equality between Jew and Gentile; both were justified through faith, not by the Law. By focusing upon relationship over behavior, the apostle held the faithful upheld the Law; faith implicitly gave a reason to live a highly moral life, but took away a reason to boast about such a lifestyle (Rom 3:27-31).

c. Step A2: Jews and Gentiles equal under Abraham's faithfulness (4:1-25)

1 What then will we say that Abraham, our forefather, has found according to the flesh? 2 For if Abraham was justified by works, he has something to boast about, but not toward God. 3 For what does the Scripture say? "Abraham believed God, and it was accounted to him for righteousness." 4 Now to him who works, the reward is not counted as grace, but as something owed. 5 But to him who doesn't work, but believes in him who justifies the ungodly, his faith is accounted for righteousness. 6 Even as David also pronounces blessing on the man to whom God counts righteousness apart from works:

7 "Blessed are they whose iniquities are forgiven,
whose sins are covered.

8 Blessed is the man whom the Lord will by no means charge with sin."

9 Is this blessing then pronounced only on the circumcised, or on the uncircumcised also? For we say that faith was accounted to Abraham for righteousness. 10 How then was it counted? When he was in circumcision, or in uncircumcision? Not in circumcision, but in uncircumcision. 11 He received the sign of circumcision, a seal of the righteousness of the faith which he had while he was in uncircumcision, that he might be the father of all those who believe, though they might be in uncircumcision, that righteousness might also be accounted to them. 12 He is the father of circumcision to those who not only are of the circumcision, but who also walk in the steps of that faith of our father Abraham, which he had in uncircumcision.

Like 3:10-38, Paul reinforced his thesis with an argument from Scripture, specifically in the person of the patriarch Abraham. He did this for two reasons. First, he strengthened his position against Jewish-Christian teachers in the Roman community who may have held a prejudice against Gentiles (notice how he quoted Scripture after stating his thesis to act against a possible counter charge). Second, he chose the father of Judaism, a figure who existed before the people received the Law on Mount Sinai. In other words, he argued that a faith relationship preceded the Law; hence, the Mosaic covenant was built upon faith, not visa versa. Just as Rom 4:3 quoted Gen 15:6, "Abraham believed in God and (it) was reckoned to him as righteousness."

The term "reckon" occurred 11 times in chapter 4; in commercial parlance, it referred to receiving credit on an account. The apostle argued that if the "works" of obeying the Law justified people, they could boast about their accomplishments (Rom 4:1-2); justification was their "due" (Rom 4:4). However, that understanding could not account for divine forgiveness that justified the sinner (Rom 4:5-8); by quoting Psa 32:1-2 (Rom 4:7-8), Paul saw the remittance of sin as blessing, in spite of circumcision. After all, Abraham's faith relationship preceded, hence, superseded his circumcision (Rom 4:9-10); indeed, the cutting of his foreskin "sealed" the faith he had in God. So, while the patriarch physically fathered the Jews, he "spiritually" fathered the Gentile believers, because he believed before he was circumcised (Rom 4:11-12).

13 For the promise to Abraham and to his offspring that he would be heir of the world wasn't through the law, but through the righteousness of faith. 14 For if those who are of the law are heirs, faith is made void, and the promise is made of no effect. 15 For the law produces wrath; for where there is no law, neither is there disobedience.

Paul insisted a faith relationship, not "works" required by the Law, put one right with God. If the situation were reversed, the faith relationship between Abraham and God, along with the divine promises he received, would fall to dust. The only function the Law could then retain would involve divine judgment; without the Law, no judgment could be made (Rom 4:13-15).

16 For this cause it is of faith, that it may be according to grace, to the end that the promise may be sure to all the offspring, not to that only which is of the law, but to that also which is of the faith of Abraham, who is the father of us all. 17 As it is written, "I have made you a father of many nations." This is in the presence of him whom he believed: God, who gives life to the dead, and calls the things that are not, as though they were. 18 Against hope, Abraham in hope believed, to the end that he might become a father of many nations, according to that which had been spoken, "So will your offspring be." 19 Without being weakened in faith, he didn't consider his own body, already having been worn out, (he being about a hundred years old), and the deadness of Sarah's womb. 20 Yet, looking to the promise of God, he didn't waver through unbelief, but grew strong through faith, giving glory to God, 21 and being fully assured that what he had promised, he was also able to perform. 22 Therefore it also was "credited to him for righteousness." 23 Now it was not written that it was accounted to him for his sake alone, 24 but for our sake also, to whom it will be accounted, who believe in him who raised Jesus our Lord from the dead, 25 who was delivered up for our trespasses, and was raised for our justification.

However, faith realized the gracious gift God offered to the "sons of Abraham," those who shared in the faith of the patriarch, whether Jew or Gentile. In Gen 17:5, God called Abraham the "father of many nations." The patriarch put his trust in this deity who raised the dead and brought new things into being. (Rom 4:16-17). Despite his advanced age and the barren womb of his wife Sarah (both of which Paul called "dead" in Rom 4:19), he held onto hope that his God would fulfill the divine promises made to him; that hope strengthened his faith which glorified God (Rom 4:19-21).

"Therefore (Abraham's faith) was reckoned to him as righteousness" (Rom 4:22). From this point, Paul employed a pesher mode of interpretation, directly applying the meaning of Gen 17:5 to Christians; like the patriarch who believed God could bring forth life from the "dead" conditions of his age and his wife's barrenness, followers of Jesus could realize eternal life through the death and resurrection of the Christ (notice the parallel Paul made between death and risen life in Rom 4:23-24). "(Jesus) was given over for our sins and was raised up for our justification" (Rom 4:25).

3. Chiasmus 3a: In Christ, all are reconciled to God (5:1-8:39)

Faith Links

a. Step A1: Christ as God's instrument of reconciliation (5:1-5, 6-11)

1 Being therefore justified by faith, we have peace with God through our Lord Jesus Christ; 2 through whom we also have our access by faith into this grace in which we stand. We rejoice in hope of the glory of God. 3 Not only this, but we also rejoice in our sufferings, knowing that suffering produces perseverance; 4 and perseverance, proven character; and proven character, hope; 5 and hope doesn't disappoint us, because God's love has been poured into our hearts through the Holy Spirit who was given to us.

6 For while we were yet weak, at the right time Christ died for the ungodly. 7 For one will hardly die for a righteous man. Yet perhaps for a good person someone would even dare to die. 8 But God commends his own love toward us, in that while we were yet sinners, Christ died for us.

9 Much more then, being now justified by his blood, we will be saved from God's wrath through him. 10 For if while we were enemies, we were reconciled to God through the death of his Son, much more, being reconciled, we will be saved by his life.

11 Not only so, but we also rejoice in God through our Lord Jesus Christ, through whom we have now received the reconciliation.

After arguing for the primacy of the faith relationship, Paul turn his focus upon the place of Christ in salvation. He was God instrument; through him, followers received grace, so they had hope. This hope sustained them through suffering, gave them endurance and toughened their character. Yet, they did not hope in vain, for God's love dwelt in them as a gift of the Spirit (Rom 5:1-5).

Now, Paul answered the question: what did Jesus do to reveal himself as a divine instrument? He died for sinners. This showed everyone the extent of God's love for humanity. Through his death ("by this blood" in Rom 5:9), believers would not suffer divine judgment ("saved from God's anger"); since they had a right relationship with God ("reconciled to God" in Rom 5:10), they would receive eternal life ("saved by his (risen) life"). Notice the parallel in Rom 5:9-10. In Rom 5:9, Jesus died to save others from eternal death of divine judgment; through his death, he reconciled others to God, thus giving them the hope of eternal life with God through his risen life (Rom 5:10). So Paul rejoiced because of God's reconciliation (Rom 5:6-11)

b. Step B1: The sin of Adam vs. the righteousness of Christ (5:12-21)

Therefore, as sin entered into the world through one man, and death through sin, so death passed to all men because all sinned. 13 For until the law, sin was in the world; but sin is not charged when there is no law. 14 Nevertheless death reigned from Adam until Moses, even over those whose sins weren't like Adam's disobedience, who is a foreshadowing of him who was to come.

Paul expounded on Christ as the divine instrument by comparing him to the first man, Adam. The primal male gave into temptation, thus becoming the instrument of evil and death that spread to all humanity. Sin preceded the Law and, while sin was not defined before the revelation on Mount Sinai, its effects, especially death, afflicted humanity from Adam to Moses. Even the righteous who prefigured Christ suffered under sin (Rom 5:12-14)

15 But the free gift isn't like the trespass. For if by the trespass of the one the many died, much more did the grace of God and the gift by the grace of the one man, Jesus Christ, abound to the many. 16 The gift is not as through one who sinned; for the judgment came by one to condemnation, but the free gift followed many trespasses to justification. 17 For if by the trespass of the one, death reigned through the one; so much more will those who receive the abundance of grace and of the gift of righteousness reign in life through the one, Jesus Christ.

18 So then as through one trespass, all men were condemned; even so through one act of righteousness, all men were justified to life. 19 For as through the one man's disobedience many were made sinners, even so through the obedience of the one, many will be made righteous. 20 The law came in that the trespass might abound; but where sin abounded, grace abounded more exceedingly, 21 that as sin reigned in death, even so grace might reign through righteousness to eternal life through Jesus Christ our Lord.

Paul set his sites on Christ, whose death and Resurrection he called a "free gift" ("charisma" in Greek). Again notice the parallel the apostle employed. "But, not like the transgression (is) the charisma. For, if through the one transgression many died, how much more the charis ("grace") of God and the gift in charis of the one man, Jesus Christ, cause to abound for the many" (Rom 5:15). He continued, comparing sin to salvation. The transgression of one led to condemnation, but the charis of one justified many. Death ruled through Adam's sin, but charis overflowed in abundance and the right relationship was given as a gift through Christ. Through one sin, all were condemned; through one righteous act, righteous came to all. Through the disobedience of Adam, all became sinners; through the obedience of Christ, many became righteous (Rom 5:15-19). Paul capped off his argument when he returned to the function of the Law in 5:20. With the increasing moral awareness that Law brought, charis increased all the more. Sin and death could never outdo the charis of God (Rom 5:20-21).

c. Step C1: Baptism, the sacrament of death to self, life to God (6:1-14)

1 What shall we say then? Shall we continue in sin, that grace may abound? 2 May it never be! We who died to sin, how could we live in it any longer? 3 Or don't you know that all of us who were baptized into Christ Jesus were baptized into his death? 4 We were buried therefore with him through baptism into death, that just as Christ was raised from the dead through the glory of the Father, so we also might walk in newness of life.

Paul concentrated on the gateway to the righteousness God offered: baptism. Christians could not increase charis through increasing immorality. Besides the absurdity of the mere thought, he drew a far more significant point. The faithful died to sin in the baptismal ritual. The apostle did not mean the language of Rom 6:2-4 as merely symbolic or metaphorical. Baptism actually grafted the believer into the death of Christ. Immersion into the waters of baptism really meant death to the old self; that immoral lifestyle was nailed to the cross. The neophyte rose up into the community with the hope they would share in the new, eternal life of the Risen One (Rom 6:1-4).

5 For if we have become united with him in the likeness of his death, we will also be part of his resurrection; 6 knowing this, that our old man was crucified with him, that the body of sin might be done away with, so that we would no longer be in bondage to sin. 7 For he who has died has been freed from sin. 8 But if we died with Christ, we believe that we will also live with him, 9 knowing that Christ, being raised from the dead, dies no more. Death no longer has dominion over him! 10 For the death that he died, he died to sin one time; but the life that he lives, he lives to God. 11 Thus consider yourselves also to be dead to sin, but alive to God in Christ Jesus our Lord.

Paul expanded on the comparison of death and life for the Christian. United to Christ in death, the believer held certain hope in union with his resurrected life. The union of death meant freedom from sin and a shift in moral lifestyle. Christ died to sin forever more; risen up, he will never die again because sin has no hold on him. He lives for God. Like Christ, the believer should also consider themselves dead to sin and living for God in the Risen One (Rom 6:5-11).

12 Therefore don't let sin reign in your mortal body, that you should obey it in its lusts. 13 Also, do not present your members to sin as instruments of unrighteousness, but present yourselves to God as alive from the dead, and your members as instruments of righteousness to God. 14 For sin will not have dominion over you, for you are not under law, but under grace.

Paul exhorted his readers to live a moral life of self control, turning away from enslaving addictions ("passions"), keeping various body parts in check. Instead, the focus of the believer should rest on God, presenting the self as one brought from death to life and one's body parts as instruments of right living. In other words, live as if God were always present. In this way, one could reject the domination of sin and "live under grace" (Rom 6:12-14).

Again, notice how Paul argued over the past several sections, in parallels and comparisons. This gave us a key to his style of debate and his ways of thinking.

d. Step C2: Conversion as freely chosen "slavery" (6:15-23)

15 What then? Shall we sin because we are not under law but under grace? May it never be! 16 Don't you know that when you present yourselves as servants and obey someone, you are the servants of whomever you obey, whether of sin to death, or of obedience to righteousness? 17 But thanks be to God that, whereas you were bondservants of sin, you became obedient from the heart to that form of teaching to which you were delivered. 18 Being made free from sin, you became bondservants of righteousness.

19 I speak in human terms because of the weakness of your flesh; for as you presented your members as servants to uncleanness and to wickedness upon wickedness, even so now present your members as servants to righteousness for sanctification. 20 For when you were servants of sin, you were free from righteousness. 21 What fruit then did you have at that time in the things of which you are now ashamed? For the end of those things is death. 22 But now, being made free from sin and having become servants of God, you have your fruit of sanctification and the result of eternal life. 23 For the wages of sin is death, but the free gift of God is eternal life in Christ Jesus our Lord.

Paul used the terminology of slavery to describe a faith relationship with God. While we moderns might find such language strange or even offense, he and his contemporaries felt comfortable with such words; after all, they lived in a world built upon class hierarchies defined by allegiances, not legal rights. The term "slave" also had a much greater flexibility in meaning than our current understanding, implicitly informed by American history. In Roman culture, a slave could be the worker in the salt mine or a trusted financial assistant, even a mentor to the children of aristocrats; a "slave" could represent the interests of the rich as an "ambassador."

Paul recognized the radical change baptism represented. Prior to the sacrament, Gentiles interested in the faith lived in a polytheistic culture with varying moral norms; after baptism, they joined a community that had a completely different view of God and expected a highly ethical lifestyle for its adherents. The apostle saw conversion as a choice of allegiance (obedience) between a pagan culture (sin) and Christianity (righteousness). The meaning "slave" primarily referred to a representative role; the question of ownership was secondary. So, potential believers faced a choice: which lifestyle would they align themselves with? Which side would they represent?

Paul set up this choice by returning to the rhetorical question of Rom 6:1; were Christians to continue in sin when they lived "under grace" (Rom 6:15)? Of course not. Then, he continued to describe the choice as freely adopted slavery; but with the choice, he included the destination of the lifestyle. Slavery to wickedness led to lawlessness and death; "slavery" to righteousness led to a growing relationship with God (sanctification) and eternal life (Rom 6:16-23).

e. Step B2: The personal battle between sin and righteousness (7:1-8:8)

1 Or don't you know, brothers (for I speak to men who know the law), that the law has dominion over a man for as long as he lives? 2 For the woman that has a husband is bound by law to the husband while he lives, but if the husband dies, she is discharged from the law of the husband. 3 So then if, while the husband lives, she is joined to another man, she would be called an adulteress. But if the husband dies, she is free from the law, so that she is no adulteress, though she is joined to another man. 4 Therefore, my brothers, you also were made dead to the law through the body of Christ, that you would be joined to another, to him who was raised from the dead, that we might produce fruit to God. 5 For when we were in the flesh, the sinful passions which were through the law worked in our members to bring out fruit to death. 6 But now we have been discharged from the law, having died to that in which we were held; so that we serve in newness of the spirit, and not in oldness of the letter.

7 What shall we say then? Is the law sin? May it never be! However, I wouldn't have known sin except through the law. For I wouldn't have known coveting unless the law had said, "You shall not covet." 8 But sin, finding occasion through the commandment, produced in me all kinds of coveting. For apart from the law, sin is dead. 9 I was alive apart from the law once, but when the commandment came, sin revived and I died. 10 The commandment which was for life, this I found to be for death; 11 for sin, finding occasion through the commandment, deceived me, and through it killed me. 12 Therefore the law indeed is holy, and the commandment holy, righteous, and good.

Paul returned to place of the Law in the life of the Christian. The Law could bind a person until death; for example, laws on marriage placed limitations on spouses until one of them died; death freed one from marital vows (Rom 7:1-3). Using this as an analogy, he implicitly held that baptism (dying "to the Law through the Body of Christ") gave believers the freedom to partake in fellowship and in union with the Risen Christ, so they could live a moral life ("bear fruit for God" in Rom 7:4).

Paul also argued one could not equate the Law with immorality. Instead it defined morality (Rom 7:7) but, in a perverse way, by stating what was sinful made breaking it more appealing to the immoral (Rom 7:5, Rom 7:8-11). Continuing his analogy of death, the apostle insisted that freedom from that which defined sin, despite its inherent goodness (Rom 7:12) allowed the faithful liberation from sin and its effects (Rom 7:5-6). In a sense, he implicitly argued for a return to the Garden of Eden, where man and woman lived in ignorance of evil and, so, ignorance of its effects, sin and death.

13 Did then that which is good become death to me? May it never be! But sin, that it might be shown to be sin, was producing death in me through that which is good; that through the commandment sin might become exceedingly sinful. 14 For we know that the law is spiritual, but I am fleshly, sold under sin. 15 For I don't understand what I am doing. For I don't practice what I desire to do; but what I hate, that I do. 16 But if what I don't desire, that I do, I consent to the law that it is good. 17 So now it is no more I that do it, but sin which dwells in me. 18 For I know that in me, that is, in my flesh, dwells no good thing. For desire is present with me, but I don't find it doing that which is good. 19 For the good which I desire, I don't do; but the evil which I don't desire, that I practice. 20 But if what I don't desire, that I do, it is no more I that do it, but sin which dwells in me. 21 I find then the law that, while I desire to do good, evil is present. 22 For I delight in God's law after the inward person, 23 but I see a different law in my members, warring against the law of my mind, and bringing me into captivity under the law of sin which is in my members. 24 What a wretched man I am! Who will deliver me out of the body of this death? 25 I thank God through Jesus Christ, our Lord! So then with the mind, I myself serve God's law, but with the flesh, sin's law.

Paul continued with a corollary to his view on the goodness of the Law. While the Law defined sin, even heightening a desire to sin in the immoral, it also clarified the good (Rom 7:13-14). And that knowledge of the good made one more aware of the interior battle between what one does (vice) and what one desired to do (virtue; Rom 7:15-20). The apostle experienced the fight between human weakness and the moral ideal, almost to the point of despair (Rom 7:21-24) but took solace in his faith (Rom 7:25).

1 There is therefore now no condemnation to those who are in Christ Jesus, who don't walk according to the flesh, but according to the Spirit. 2 For the law of the Spirit of life in Christ Jesus made me free from the law of sin and of death. 3 For what the law couldn't do, in that it was weak through the flesh, God did, sending his own Son in the likeness of sinful flesh and for sin, he condemned sin in the flesh, 4 that the ordinance of the law might be fulfilled in us who don't walk according to the flesh, but according to the Spirit. 5 For those who live according to the flesh set their minds on the things of the flesh, but those who live according to the Spirit, the things of the Spirit. 6 For the mind of the flesh is death, but the mind of the Spirit is life and peace; 7 because the mind of the flesh is hostile toward God, for it is not subject to God's law, neither indeed can it be. 8 Those who are in the flesh can't please God.

Despite the battle between good and evil highlighted by the Law, Paul held for freedom from condemnation in Christ Jesus (Rom 8:1-2). God gave the Law but he also sent his Son into the world ("in the likeness of sinful flesh") to damn evil ("condemned sin in the flesh") and free believers ("righteous requirement of the Law might be fulfilled") who "walked in the Spirit" (Rom 8:3-4). In other words, the Law was God's initiative, but so was salvation in Christ. The Christian who underwent the radical shift in outlook and lifestyle did not "set their minds on things of the flesh" (before conversion) but on "things of the Spirit" (after conversion; Rom 8:5). The apostle opposed the "before" and "after" with their results (death vs. life and peace; Rom 8:6); the former could not please God, since it, according to Paul, stood hostile to the divine (Rom 8:7-8).

f. Step A2: Unity in the Divine Plan (8:9-39: Links 8:9-13, 8:14-17, 8:18-23, 8:22-27, 8:28-30, 8:31-34, 8:25-39)

9 But you are not in the flesh but in the Spirit, if it is so that the Spirit of God dwells in you. But if any man doesn't have the Spirit of Christ, he is not his. 10 If Christ is in you, the body is dead because of sin, but the spirit is alive because of righteousness. 11 But if the Spirit of him who raised up Jesus from the dead dwells in you, he who raised up Christ Jesus from the dead will also give life to your mortal bodies through his Spirit who dwells in you.

12 So then, brothers, we are debtors, not to the flesh, to live after the flesh. 13 For if you live after the flesh, you must die; but if by the Spirit you put to death the deeds of the body, you will live. 14 For as many as are led by the Spirit of God, these are children of God. 15 For you didn't receive the spirit of bondage again to fear, but you received the Spirit of adoption, by whom we cry, "Abba! Father!"

16 The Spirit himself testifies with our spirit that we are children of God; 17 and if children, then heirs - heirs of God and joint heirs with Christ, if indeed we suffer with him, that we may also be glorified with him.

Paul continued to oppose the pagan life with the Christian life; the former led to death, the later to life in the Spirit which made the believer a "son of God" (Rom 8:12-13). Here, the apostle shifted the analogy to the status of a family member. He compared the pagan to a slave, living in fear, but he noted the believer received the place of the adopted son who could address God as "Abba, Father" (Rom 8:14-15). How did believers intuit this? Through the Spirit. And in the power of God, followers realized they would receive the same inheritance as the Son, even though they might suffer like the Christ (Rom 8:16-17).

18 For I consider that the sufferings of this present time are not worthy to be compared with the glory which will be revealed toward us. 19 For the creation waits with eager expectation for the children of God to be revealed. 20 For the creation was subjected to vanity, not of its own will, but because of him who subjected it, in hope 21 that the creation itself also will be delivered from the bondage of decay into the liberty of the glory of the children of God. 22 For we know that the whole creation groans and travails in pain together until now. 23 Not only so, but ourselves also, who have the first fruits of the Spirit, even we ourselves groan within ourselves, waiting for adoption, the redemption of our body. 24 For we were saved in hope, but hope that is seen is not hope. For who hopes for that which he sees? 25 But if we hope for that which we don't see, we wait for it with patience.

26 In the same way, the Spirit also helps our weaknesses, for we don't know how to pray as we ought. But the Spirit himself makes intercession for us with groanings which can't be uttered. 27 He who searches the hearts knows what is on the Spirit's mind, because he makes intercession for the saints according to God.

In spite of his sufferings, Paul widened his vision of salvation. Not only humanity but all of nature yearned for the moment when God would reveal his children (Rom 8:18-19). In the hierarchy of creation, God placed humanity at the peak of the cosmos, so when the divine liberated people, others down the chain of that order would find fulfillment (Rom 8:20-21). Here Paul treated nature as sentient being; until that moment of completion, it "has been groaning in the pains of childbirth" (Rom 8:22). And, he went on, the believers also "groaned" to see the end time, the moment of revelation as adopted children and the event of bodily redemption (Rom 8:23). While the faithful have not seen the day yet, they live in patient hope for its arrival (Rom 8:24-25).

While the Spirit gave Christians hope for the end time, it also interceded in their prayer life. Believers might find stresses in their lives confuse, even mute, their intercessions; the Spirit would pray to God inside them with "groanings too deep for words" (a parallel with cosmic "groanings" in Rom 8:23; Rom 8:26). The power of God interceded "for the saint according to the will of God" for the Father himself searched their hearts (Rom 8:27).

28 We know that all things work together for good for those who love God, for those who are called according to his purpose. 29 For whom he foreknew, he also predestined to be conformed to the image of his Son, that he might be the firstborn among many brothers. 30 Whom he predestined, those he also called. Whom he called, those he also justified. Whom he justified, those he also glorified.

Employing this image of the indwelling Spirit, Paul presented a series of cascading images to explain salvation history in the lives of believers. Since the Spirit already motivated the faithful ("called to his purpose"), it guided all life experiences, despite tough times, towards the good (Rom 8:28). Spirit-driven Christians would suffer and even die ("predestined to conform to the image of his Son") in the hope they would be raised ("firstborn among many"; Rom 8:29). God chose the faithful by calling them through the Spirit; he justified those who received the Spirit, in the hope of eternal life ("glory"; Rom 8:30).

Notice the use of repeated verbs in Rom 8:28-30. Beginning with "foreknew" and ending with "glorified," Paul employed "predestined...predestined, called...called, Justified...justified." The last two verb pairings sat close together while the first ("predestined...predestined") bookended the phrase "conformed to the image of his SON, so that HE would be the firstborn among many brothers." This first set of verbs heightened the place of Christians in the divine plan; their suffering would lead to their eternal glory.

Note several details about the way Paul used the term "predestine" (sometimes called "election," in Greek "proginosko"). First, in the context of Rom 8:22 where all creation yearned to see the day of redemption, God wanted all to be saved, since he created humanity along with nature. Second, in the context of Rom 6:15-23, the offer of salvation depended upon the choice of the individual, picking either slavery to sin or slavery to the Spirit. Finally, Rom 8:28-30 referred to the faithful in the plural; many have argued that the term "predestined" must be applied to the Church, not to its individual members. This paralleled the "election" of Israel as a nation (Deu 7:6) not its individual members, many of who fell away (Deu 28:20, Deu 29:25, Jer 9:13). In other words, God offered salvation to all but allowed each individual the freedom to accept or reject the offer; he "predestined" the community itself to "conform to image of his SON."

31 What then shall we say about these things? If God is for us, who can be against us? 32 He who didn't spare his own Son, but delivered him up for us all, how would he not also with him freely give us all things? 33 Who could bring a charge against God's chosen ones? It is God who justifies. 34 Who is he who condemns? It is Christ who died, yes rather, who was raised from the dead, who is at the right hand of God, who also makes intercession for us.

35 Who shall separate us from the love of Christ? Could oppression, or anguish, or persecution, or famine, or nakedness, or peril, or sword? 36 Even as it is written,

"For your sake we are killed all day long.
We were accounted as sheep for the slaughter."

37 No, in all these things we are more than conquerors through him who loved us. 38 For I am persuaded that neither death, nor life, nor angels, nor principalities, nor things present, nor things to come, nor powers, 39 nor height, nor depth, nor any other created thing will be able to separate us from God's love which is in Christ Jesus our Lord.

With a set of rhetorical questions, Paul drew parallel corollaries about the divine plan.

8:31b "If God is for us who can be against us?"

Parallel 1a: Rom 8:32 God gave the community his gracious gifts because he did not spare his Son.

Parallel 2a: Rom 8:33-34 Since God is the judge, no one can bring the faithful to court and expect a favorable ruling; a priori, the accused will find acquittal.

8:35a "Who will separate us from the love of Christ?"

Parallel 1b: Rom 8:35-37 Quoting Psa 44:22, Paul implied Christians would face pressures beyond their control, but these would not change the outcome of God's victory.

Parallel 2b: Rom 8:38-39 Paul finished his argument by denying any spiritual power in the universe (even death itself) could separate the faithful from the love of God.

Again, notice the parallels. God gave the Church his grace (Rom 8:32), insuring victory over troubles (Rom 8:35-37). God judged the faithful innocent despite charges made against them (Rom 8:33-34); hence, no power in the cosmos could separate the faithful from God's love (Rom 8:38-39). In this light, Paul proclaimed predestination as divine intimacy.

4. Chiasmus 3b: Israel and Gentiles are interdependent for salvation (9:1-11:36).

Interdependent Links

a. Step A1: Paul's anguish and doxology over the glory of Israel (9:1-5)

1 I tell the truth in Christ. I am not lying, my conscience testifying with me in the Holy Spirit 2 that I have great sorrow and unceasing pain in my heart. 3 For I could wish that I myself were accursed from Christ for my brothers' sake, my relatives according to the flesh 4 who are Israelites; whose is the adoption, the glory, the covenants, the giving of the law, the service, and the promises; 5 of whom are the fathers, and from whom is Christ as concerning the flesh, who is over all, God, blessed forever. Amen.

Paul saw his Christian witness to his fellow Jews fell on deaf ears; he anguished over their lack of faith. He even wished excommunication for their sake (in a sense, he was sarcastic since many Jewish opponents had already rejected him). After all, they enjoyed all the advantages of a relationship with the true God, divine adoption, the covenants, the Torah, Temple worship and divine promises. They claimed the patriarchs and, through bloodlines, could claim the Christ (Rom 9:1-5).

These few verses stated the problem Paul would address in 9-11: how did the increasing numbers of Gentile converts and the lack of Jewish believers fit into God grand plan for the end times?

b. Step B1: The Elect built upon divine promises (9:6-29)

How did God choose his people? Paul answered that question in three steps.

Step 1: Divine Election. (9:6-13)

6 But it is not as though the word of God has come to nothing. For they are not all Israel that are of Israel. 7 Neither, because they are Abraham's offspring, are they all children. But, "your offspring will be accounted as from Isaac." 8 That is, it is not the children of the flesh who are children of God, but the children of the promise are counted as heirs. 9 For this is a word of promise: "At the appointed time I will come, and Sarah will have a son." 10 Not only so, but Rebekah also conceived by one, by our father Isaac. 11 For being not yet born, neither having done anything good or bad, that the purpose of God according to election might stand, not of works, but of him who calls, 12 it was said to her, "The elder will serve the younger." 13 Even as it is written, "Jacob I loved, but Esau I hated."

In Rom 9:6, Paul sharply declared God's word did not fail. An opponent could argue the situation of growing Gentile adherents vs. Jewish intransigence meant either YHWH did not keep his promises (not likely) or Jesus of Nazareth was not the Christ according to the Law and the Prophets; the phenomena of the Church had irreligious or even demonic roots. So, the apostle had to defend the integrity of God's word to advance his thesis that the Gentile attraction vs. Jewish repulsion to the faith could be explained even from Scripture.

Paul distinguished between birthright and divine election. Salvation could not depend upon bloodlines; such a belief would violate divine freedom. The apostle argued for God's prerogative through the narrative of the patriarchs. Despite his old age, Abraham realized the promises of YHWH in the miraculous birth of his son, Isaac (Rom 9:7, quoting Gen 21:12). Paul emphasized election through promise over birthright (Rom 9:8) by showing that the later depended upon the former. The promise of Isaac preceded his birth (Rom 9:9, quoting Gen 18:10, Gen 18:14); in turn, the choice of Jacob over Esau existed even before their conception (Rom 9:10-13, quoting Gen 25:23 and Mal 1:2-3).

Doesn't Paul's argument support the charge of divine capaciousness? Not at all, the apostle insisted (Rom 9:14). Instead, he made two counter claims.

Step 2: Against human effort (9:15-18).

14 What shall we say then? Is there unrighteousness with God? May it never be! 15 For he said to Moses, "I will have mercy on whom I have mercy, and I will have compassion on whom I have compassion." 16 So then it is not of him who wills, nor of him who runs, but of God who has mercy. 17 For the Scripture says to Pharaoh, "For this very purpose I caused you to be raised up, that I might show in you my power, and that my name might be proclaimed in all the earth." 18 So then, he has mercy on whom he desires, and he hardens whom he desires.

Divine freedom allowed for divine mercy which implicitly led to salvation (Rom 9:15, quoting Exo 33:19); humans could not save themselves (Rom 9:16), only God could grant or withhold mercy (Rom 9:17-18, quoting Exo 9:16).

Step 3: Divine freedom (9:19-29).

19 You will say then to me, "Why does he still find fault? For who withstands his will?" 20 But indeed, O man, who are you to reply against God? Will the thing formed ask him who formed it, "Why did you make me like this?" 21 Or hasn't the potter a right over the clay, from the same lump to make one part a vessel for honor, and another for dishonor? 22 What if God, willing to show his wrath and to make his power known, endured with much patience vessels of wrath prepared for destruction, 23 and that he might make known the riches of his glory on vessels of mercy, which he prepared beforehand for glory— 24 us, whom he also called, not from the Jews only, but also from the Gentiles? 25 As he says also in Hosea,

"I will call them 'my people,' which were not my people;
and her 'beloved,' who was not beloved."
26 "It will be that in the place where it was said to them, 'You are not my people,'
there they will be called 'children of the living God.' "

27 Isaiah cries concerning Israel,

"If the number of the children of Israel are as the sand of the sea,
it is the remnant who will be saved;
28 for he will finish the work and cut it short in righteousness,
because the Lord will make a short work upon the earth."

29 As Isaiah has said before,

"Unless the Lord of Armies had left us a seed,
we would have become like Sodom,
and would have been made like Gomorrah."

Divine freedom did not make God morally culpable (Rom 9:19). Employing the Scriptural image of the potter (God) and the clay pot (humans), he insisted that people had no right to question the prerogative of YHWH (Rom 9:20, quoting Isa 29:26 and Isa 45:9). Divine providence meant only God had the power to choose the station of people in life and their possibilities, seemingly showing favor to one over another, even Gentiles over Jews (Rom 9:21-24). The apostle reinforced his point about God's unlimited freedom to choose his people with quotes from the prophets Hosea (Rom 9:25-26, quoting Hos 2:23 and Hos 1:10) and Isaiah (Rom 9:27-28, quoting Isa 10:22-23 LXX; Rom 9:29, quoting Isa 1:9).

Notice in 9:6b-29, Paul used Scripture verses as the first and last elements ("A" steps) in a series of small chiastic structures. The middle elements ("B" step) made his points: divine election trumped birthright (Rom 9:6-13), humans could not justify themselves (Rom 9:15-18) and divine freedom could even favor Gentile over Jew (Rom 9:19-29). So, the apostle argued against the common logic that divine favor ranked the Jew over the Gentile.

c. Step C1: Faith as trust in the heart and a baptismal declaration (9:30-10:21)

In this section, Paul employed another chiastic structure to explain why the Gentiles found salvation in Christ while non-Christian Jews did not.

1) Chiasmus a1 (9:30-10:4)

30 What shall we say then? That the Gentiles, who didn't follow after righteousness, attained to righteousness, even the righteousness which is of faith; 31 but Israel, following after a law of righteousness, didn't arrive at the law of righteousness. 32 Why? Because they didn't seek it by faith, but as it were by works of the law. They stumbled over the stumbling stone, 33 even as it is written,

"Behold, I lay in Zion a stumbling stone and a rock of offense;
and no one who believes in him will be disappointed."

10:1 Brothers, my heart's desire and my prayer to God is for Israel, that they may be saved. 2 For I testify about them that they have a zeal for God, but not according to knowledge. 3 For being ignorant of God's righteousness, and seeking to establish their own righteousness, they didn't subject themselves to the righteousness of God. 4 For Christ is the fulfillment of the law for righteousness to everyone who believes.

Paul stated his thesis plainly. Gentiles found a right relationship with God through faith, while Jews did not find it simply because they based their spirituality upon mere observance of the Law (Rom 9:30-32). Obsession on obedience was their "stumbling stone" (Rom 9:33, quoting Isa 28:16 and Isa 8:14). While Paul empathized with his fellow Jews, he argued that they sought a path to God based upon their own efforts (Rom 10:1-3). They did not see that, with the appearance of the Christ, the Law came to an end. Implicitly, the Jewish Messiah became the Anointed for all people; to have a right relationship with God meant faith in his Christ (Rom 10:4).

2) Chiasmus b (10:5-13)

5 For Moses writes about the righteousness of the law, "The one who does them will live by them." 6 But the righteousness which is of faith says this, "Don't say in your heart, 'Who will ascend into heaven?' (that is, to bring Christ down); 7 or, 'Who will descend into the abyss?' (that is, to bring Christ up from the dead.)" 8 But what does it say? "The word is near you, in your mouth and in your heart;" that is, the word of faith which we preach: 9 that if you will confess with your mouth that Jesus is Lord and believe in your heart that God raised him from the dead, you will be saved. 10 For with the heart one believes resulting in righteousness; and with the mouth confession is made resulting in salvation. 11 For the Scripture says, "Whoever believes in him will not be disappointed."

12 For there is no distinction between Jew and Greek; for the same Lord is Lord of all, and is rich to all who call on him. 13 For, "Whoever will call on the name of the Lord will be saved."

Here, Paul addressed the ultimate question for the mixed Jewish-Gentile community: how could God save those outside the Law? While he recognized a righteousness under the Law (Rom 10:5, quoting Lev 18:5), the apostle touted the superiority of righteousness by faith; he applied Scripture to the "descent" of Christ from heaven (his appearance on earth; Rom 10:6, quoting Deu 9:4 and Deu 30:12), to the "ascent" of the Messiah from the dead (Rom 10:7, quoting Deu 30:13) and to the apostolic preaching about Jesus (Rom 10:8, quoting Deu 30:14). Here, Paul summed up his point, penning his famous description of salvation through faith:

"...if ever you should confess with your mouth, "Jesus is Lord," and should believe in your heart God raised him from the dead, you will be saved. For, with the heart one has believed (leading) to righteousness and with the mouth one confessed (leading) to salvation." (Rom 10:9-10)

Notice in 10:9-10 Paul described a right relationship with God as the faith choice and the moment of salvation as a public confession made within the community at baptism. He backed up his point with a Scripture quote on belief (Rom 10:11, quoting Isa 28:16) and on public declaration of faith (Rom 10:13, quoting Joel 2:32); in between, he sandwiched his conviction that God did not distinguish between Jew or Gentile believers, blessing both abundantly (Rom 10:12).

3) Chiasmus a2 (10:14-21)

How then will they call on him in whom they have not believed? How will they believe in him whom they have not heard? How will they hear without a preacher? 15 And how will they preach unless they are sent? As it is written:

"How beautiful are the feet of those who preach the Good News of peace,
who bring glad tidings of good things!"

16 But they didn't all listen to the glad news. For Isaiah says, "Lord, who has believed our report?" 17 So faith comes by hearing, and hearing by the word of God. 18 But I say, didn't they hear? Yes, most certainly,

"Their sound went out into all the earth,
their words to the ends of the world."

19 But I ask, didn't Israel know? First Moses says,

"I will provoke you to jealousy with that which is no nation.
I will make you angry with a nation void of understanding."

20 Isaiah is very bold and says,

"I was found by those who didn't seek me.
I was revealed to those who didn't ask for me."

21 But about Israel he says, "All day long I stretched out my hands to a disobedient and contrary people."

Now, Paul faced the practical question: how can one come to faith in Christ? The Good News about Jesus must be preached to them. Through a series of rhetorical questions, the apostle moved backwards from public declaration at baptism (call) to belief in the heart to hearing about Christ to preaching to the sending of missionaries; he capped this progression off with a beatitude about timely news given by messengers (Rom 10:14-15, quoting Isa 52:7 and Nah 1:15). But, many who heard the Good News did not accept it (Rom 10:16, quoting Isa 53:1) so they had no excuse. They definitely did hear it preached (made emphatic with the use of a double negative in Rom 10:18, quoting Psa 19:4). And they really understood its implications (again made emphatic with the use of a double negative in Rom 10:19, quoting Deu 32:21; Rom 10:20, quoting Isa 65:1). Despite God's patience with his stubborn people (Rom 10:21, quoting Isa 65:2), the only way to find faith came through hearing the word of Christ preached (Rom 10:17).

So, Paul argued for the superiority of faith over the mere slavish obedience to the Law ("works") and chided those who heard and understood the Good News but rejected it (the "A" steps in the chiasmus). The faith and its rejection heightened the components of faith: trust in the heart and a baptismal declaration before the community (the "B" step).

d. Step C2: A Jewish-Christian remnant saved by faith (11:1-10)

1 I ask then, did God reject his people? May it never be! For I also am an Israelite, a descendant of Abraham, of the tribe of Benjamin. 2 God didn't reject his people, whom he foreknew. Or don't you know what the Scripture says about Elijah? How he pleads with God against Israel: 3 "Lord, they have killed your prophets. They have broken down your altars. I am left alone, and they seek my life." 4 But how does God answer him? "I have reserved for myself seven thousand men who have not bowed the knee to Baal." 5 Even so too at this present time also there is a remnant according to the election of grace. 6 And if by grace, then it is no longer of works; otherwise grace is no longer grace. But if it is of works, it is no longer grace; otherwise work is no longer work.

7 What then? That which Israel seeks for, that he didn't obtain, but the chosen ones obtained it, and the rest were hardened. 8 According as it is written, "God gave them a spirit of stupor, eyes that they should not see, and ears that they should not hear, to this very day."

9 David says,

"Let their table be made a snare, a trap,
a stumbling block, and a retribution to them.
10 Let their eyes be darkened, that they may not see.
Always keep their backs bent."

Paul turned to address the salvation of Israel in the face of Gentile election. He insisted God did not reject his people; after all, the apostle was living proof that even hard-hearted Jews could find redemption (Rom 11:1) as a part of a divinely ordained remnant (Rom 11:2-4, quoting 1 Kgs 19:10, 1 Kgs 19:14, 1 Kgs 19:18). Instead, he stated the remnant was saved by grace, a God-given gift (Rom 11:5) not through the efforts of mere obedience to the Law ("works"; Rom 11:5-6). For some to find faith, others must reject it, including those to whom God meant the message (Rom 11:7-9, quoting Deu 29:4 and Isa 29:10).

e. Step B2: Part of Israel is hardened so both Gentiles and Israel may be saved (11:11-32)

Paul touted the superiority of faith in the heart and a baptismal profession over obedience to the Law. As he insisted, faith opened salvation to Gentiles, thus leading many Jews to reject the Good News. How could this be? In 9:6-29, he argued for 1) divine election over birthright, 2) the inability for humans to justify themselves before God and 3) divine freedom allowed God to favor Gentile over Jew. Now, he presented his case in reverse order.

Step 3: Divine freedom (Rom 11:11-15).

11 I ask then, did they stumble that they might fall? May it never be! But by their fall salvation has come to the Gentiles, to provoke them to jealousy. 12 Now if their fall is the riches of the world, and their loss the riches of the Gentiles, how much more their fullness!

13 For I speak to you who are Gentiles. Since then as I am an apostle to Gentiles, I glorify my ministry, 14 if by any means I may provoke to jealousy those who are my flesh, and may save some of them. 15 For if the rejection of them is the reconciling of the world, what would their acceptance be, but life from the dead?

The failure of the Chosen People to believe allowed the Good News to be preached to the Gentiles, thus God willed salvation for the pagan. If Israel's rejection led non-Jews to reconcile with God, then their acceptance would mean life in the Spirit out of a dead existence; Paul meant this last remark both as metaphorical (a revived spirituality) and as eschatological (a sign for the end times; Rom 11:15). Paul's success among the Gentiles might lead to jealousy and opposition from the Jews, but it also might spur them to conversion (Rom 11:11, 14).

Step 2: Against human effort (Rom 11:16-24).

16 If the first fruit is holy, so is the lump. If the root is holy, so are the branches. 17 But if some of the branches were broken off, and you, being a wild olive, were grafted in among them and became partaker with them of the root and of the richness of the olive tree, 18 don't boast over the branches. But if you boast, remember that it is not you who support the root, but the root supports you. 19 You will say then, "Branches were broken off, that I might be grafted in." 20 True; by their unbelief they were broken off, and you stand by your faith. Don't be conceited, but fear; 21 for if God didn't spare the natural branches, neither will he spare you. 22 See then the goodness and severity of God. Toward those who fell, severity; but toward you, goodness, if you continue in his goodness; otherwise you also will be cut off. 23 They also, if they don't continue in their unbelief, will be grafted in, for God is able to graft them in again. 24 For if you were cut out of that which is by nature a wild olive tree, and were grafted contrary to nature into a good olive tree, how much more will these, which are the natural branches, be grafted into their own olive tree?

Here, Paul shifted metaphors from the dough (the first fruit in Rom 11:16) that would form the baked bread offered at the Temple to the image of the olive tree as Israel. The rest of this section acted as a commentary on Jer 11:16-19 in which God willed a lush olive tree (the people of Israel) to endure fire (as a punishment for their idolatry to Baal). Yet, in spite of its disobedience, the trunk of the tree (the holy remnant mentioned in Rom 11:1-10) would remain alive, able to bear the fruit from grafted branches (Gentile believers). With this last remark, the apostle chided arrogant Gentiles who might rejoice in their new found status and gloat over the obeisance of non-believing Jews; their salvation depended not on their own efforts in faith, but upon Judaism itself (Rom 11:18-19). Gentile Christians should remain humble for two reasons. First, God could judge the Gentile believer as harshly as the non-Christian Jew (Rom 11:20-22). Second, even the obstinate Jew could repent and return to the fold as a "grafted branch" (11:23-24). In other words, God made his offer of salvation to all, only if they would receive it in faith.

Step 1: Divine election (Rom 11:25-32).

25 For I don't desire you to be ignorant, brothers, of this mystery, so that you won't be wise in your own conceits, that a partial hardening has happened to Israel, until the fullness of the Gentiles has come in, 26 and so all Israel will be saved. Even as it is written,

"There will come out of Zion the Deliverer,
and he will turn away ungodliness from Jacob.
27 This is my covenant with them,
when I will take away their sins."

28 Concerning the Good News, they are enemies for your sake. But concerning the election, they are beloved for the fathers' sake. 29 For the gifts and the calling of God are irrevocable. 30 For as you in time past were disobedient to God, but now have obtained mercy by their disobedience, 31 even so these also have now been disobedient, that by the mercy shown to you they may also obtain mercy. 32 For God has bound all to disobedience, that he might have mercy on all.

Paul presented the opposition of non-Christian Jews as integral to God's mysterious plan. Their hard-hearted rejection meant salvation for the Gentiles but, at certain point, the influx of pagans would be complete; at this point, God's entire people ("Israel") would be saved (Rom 11:26-27, quoting Isa 27:9, Jer 31:33-34). Despite their opposition, their election based upon God's promises remained firm (Rom 11:28-29). From God's standpoint, their rejection meant mercy upon the former pagans; in turn, their repentance from their intransigence would lead to God's forbearance (Rom 11:30-31). In this way, God did not show favoritism; he allowed all to disobey, so he could grant mercy on all (Rom 11:32). Notice Paul equated divine mercy with divine election.

f. Step A2: Paul's doxology for God's mysterious plan (11:33-36)

33 Oh the depth of the riches both of the wisdom and the knowledge of God! How unsearchable are his judgments, and his ways past tracing out!

34 "For who has known the mind of the Lord?
Or who has been his counselor?"
35 "Or who has first given to him,
and it will be repaid to him again?"

36 For of him and through him and to him are all things. To him be the glory for ever! Amen.

Did Paul's vision for God's plan make sense? From a human standpoint, not really. But that was his insight; he defended divine freedom and praised God for it (Rom 11:33-36). With a quote that combined Isa 40:13 and Job 41:11 (Rom 11:34-35), he ended his argument the same way he started it in Rom 9:5, with a doxology (Rom 11:36)

5. Chiasmus 2b: Living out faith in a Jewish-Gentile community (12:1-13:14)

Living Links

In 3:21-4:25, Paul argued for faith as the primary test for divine justification, not mere obedience to the Law. In this parallel chiastic structure, he exhorted his Roman audience to live out faith in very practical terms.

a. Step A1: True spirituality (12:1-2)

1 Therefore I urge you, brothers, by the mercies of God, to present your bodies a living sacrifice, holy, acceptable to God, which is your spiritual service. 2 Don't be conformed to this world, but be transformed by the renewing of your mind, so that you may prove what is the good, well-pleasing, and perfect will of God.

How should a Christian live (offer "spiritual worship" to God)? Since Paul took away obedience to the Law as the basis for a relationship with the divine, he shifted spirituality to the awareness prayer brought; offer one's self to God. Instead of returning to one's former life outside the Church, one should discern God's will by measuring life's experiences with "the good, the well-pleasing and the complete" (Rom 12:1-2). In other words, live up to a higher moral and spiritual standard.

b. Step B1: Spiritual gifts and their use (12:3-13)

3 For I say through the grace that was given me, to everyone who is among you, not to think of yourself more highly than you ought to think; but to think reasonably, as God has apportioned to each person a measure of faith. 4 For even as we have many members in one body, and all the members don't have the same function, 5 so we, who are many, are one body in Christ, and individually members of one another, 6 having gifts differing according to the grace that was given to us: if prophecy, let's prophesy according to the proportion of our faith; 7 or service, let's give ourselves to service; or he who teaches, to his teaching; 8 or he who exhorts, to his exhorting; he who gives, let him do it with generosity; he who rules, with diligence; he who shows mercy, with cheerfulness.

9 Let love be without hypocrisy. Abhor that which is evil. Cling to that which is good. 10 In love of the brothers be tenderly affectionate to one another; in honor prefer one another, 11 not lagging in diligence, fervent in spirit, serving the Lord, 12 rejoicing in hope, enduring in troubles, continuing steadfastly in prayer, 13 contributing to the needs of the saints, and given to hospitality.

In an appeal to the higher standard, Paul exhorted his audience not to use their new found status as a measuring stick to judge others with (Rom 12:3). Instead, he echoed his theme of the Church as a body with many members (Rom 12:4-5 in reference to 1 Cor 12:12). He followed with a list of spiritual gifts that, in some cases paralleled the gifts in 1 Cor 12:8-10 (prophecy, teaching) but, in other cases, changed their labels (wisdom and knowledge for leading, healing and miracle making for acts of mercy). Some of the gifts listed in 1 Cor 12:10 he left out entirely (the gift and interpretation of tongues, discernment of spirits). The gifts listed in First Corinthians tilted more towards official functions of office (elder, teacher, healer, prophet, etc.) while those listed in Romans rose up organically within the community based upon God-given grace (Rom 12:6-8).

Paul inferred the proper use of spiritual gifts brought about harmony within the community. He exhorted the faithful in Rome to seek the good, build up others and fervently serve the Lord through prayer, cheerfulness and patience in the face of opposition. He did not forget to mention the social virtues of hospitality and charity towards others in the Church (Rom 12:9-13).

c. Step C1: Interaction with outsiders (12:14-21)

14 Bless those who persecute you; bless, and don't curse. 15 Rejoice with those who rejoice. Weep with those who weep. 16 Be of the same mind one toward another. Don't set your mind on high things, but associate with the humble. Don't be wise in your own conceits. 17 Repay no one evil for evil. Respect what is honorable in the sight of all men. 18 If it is possible, as much as it is up to you, be at peace with all men. 19 Don't seek revenge yourselves, beloved, but give place to God's wrath. For it is written, "Vengeance belongs to me; I will repay, says the Lord." 20 Therefore

"If your enemy is hungry, feed him.
If he is thirsty, give him a drink;
for in doing so, you will heap coals of fire on his head."

21 Don't be overcome by evil, but overcome evil with good.

Now, Paul turned his attention to the image Christians should project to non-believing neighbors. He exhorted blessing upon enemies, empathy with neighbors, acts of humility that discouraged arrogance, a consideration of honor before all over vengeance and the desire to live in peace with all (Rom 12:14-18). He preferred charity over seeking some sense of justice as a means to overcome any ill-will they experienced from outsiders (Rom 12:19-21, quoting Deu 32:35 and Prov 25:21-22).

d. Step C2: Interactions with civic officials (13:1-7)

1 Let every soul be in subjection to the higher authorities, for there is no authority except from God, and those who exist are ordained by God. 2 Therefore he who resists the authority withstands the ordinance of God; and those who withstand will receive to themselves judgment. 3 For rulers are not a terror to the good work, but to the evil. Do you desire to have no fear of the authority? Do that which is good, and you will have praise from the authority, 4 for he is a servant of God to you for good. But if you do that which is evil, be afraid, for he doesn't bear the sword in vain; for he is a servant of God, an avenger for wrath to him who does evil. 5 Therefore you need to be in subjection, not only because of the wrath, but also for conscience' sake. 6 For this reason you also pay taxes, for they are servants of God's service, continually doing this very thing. 7 Therefore give everyone what you owe: if you owe taxes, pay taxes; if customs, then customs; if respect, then respect; if honor, then honor.

After addressing common interaction with pagans and non-believing Jews, Paul addressed the tense relations the Christian community had with civic and imperial officials. The retrospective report of the late first century writer, Suetonius, detailed the banishment of Christians and Jews by the emperor Claudius in 49 CE over disturbances concerning the identity of the Messiah. Based upon the historian's statement, we can assume Christians in Rome lived under the suspicious eye of the government. The question remained: how could the faithful live with these conditions?

Paul urged respect towards the government and a highly moral life; both of these would promote a good reputation for the Church. In Rom 13:1-2, he implied the hierarchical structure of the government had God's approval. If the faithful acted in good conscience, they had nothing to fear (Rom 13:3); only the evil had reason to cower from divinely appointed officials (Rom 13:3-4). So Christians should live as loyal citizens by paying taxes and giving officials the respect they were due (Rom 13:5-7).

e. Step B2: Love your neighbor (13:8-10)

8 Owe no one anything, except to love one another; for he who loves his neighbor has fulfilled the law. 9 For the commandments, "You shall not commit adultery," "You shall not murder," "You shall not steal," "You shall not covet," and whatever other commandments there are, are all summed up in this saying, namely, "You shall love your neighbor as yourself." 10 Love doesn't harm a neighbor. Love therefore is the fulfillment of the law.

In echoing the proper use of spiritual gifts from Rom 12:3-13, Paul summarized the proper attitude of Christians within the community and towards outsiders with one word, love. Love fulfilled the Law (Rom 13:8-10, quoting Exo 20:13-15, Deu 5:17-21 and Lev 19:18).

f. Step A2: Living a true spirituality (13:11-14)

11 Do this, knowing the time, that it is already time for you to awaken out of sleep, for salvation is now nearer to us than when we first believed. 12 The night is far gone, and the day is near. Let's therefore throw off the deeds of darkness, and let's put on the armor of light. 13 Let's walk properly, as in the day; not in reveling and drunkenness, not in sexual promiscuity and lustful acts, and not in strife and jealousy. 14 But put on the Lord Jesus Christ, and make no provision for the flesh, for its lusts.

Paul returned to an exhortation of true spirituality, now in light of the immanent Second Coming (Rom 13:11). He compared the former existence outside the community with life inside the Church as the classic face-off between light and dark, day and night ; but this time, he added a moral twist. Believers should not revel in sexual improprieties, drunkenness or back-biting; instead, they should "put on the Lord Jesus Christ" (Rom 13:12-14).

6. Chiasmus 1b: Jews and Gentiles, glorify God together, as brothers (14:1-15:13)

Together Links

a. Step A1: Welcome all to worship the God of all (14:1-13)

1 Now accept one who is weak in faith, but not for disputes over opinions. 2 One man has faith to eat all things, but he who is weak eats only vegetables. 3 Don't let him who eats despise him who doesn't eat. Don't let him who doesn't eat judge him who eats, for God has accepted him. 4 Who are you who judge another's servant? To his own lord he stands or falls. Yes, he will be made to stand, for God has power to make him stand.

5 One man esteems one day as more important. Another esteems every day alike. Let each man be fully assured in his own mind. 6 He who observes the day, observes it to the Lord; and he who does not observe the day, to the Lord he does not observe it. He who eats, eats to the Lord, for he gives God thanks. He who doesn't eat, to the Lord he doesn't eat, and gives God thanks. 7 For none of us lives to himself, and none dies to himself. 8 For if we live, we live to the Lord. Or if we die, we die to the Lord. If therefore we live or die, we are the Lord's. 9 For to this end Christ died, rose, and lived again, that he might be Lord of both the dead and the living.

10 But you, why do you judge your brother? Or you again, why do you despise your brother? For we will all stand before the judgment seat of Christ. 11 For it is written,

" 'As I live,' says the Lord, 'to me every knee will bow.
Every tongue will confess to God.' "

12 So then each one of us will give account of himself to God.

13 Therefore let's not judge one another any more, but judge this rather, that no man put a stumbling block in his brother's way, or an occasion for falling.

In this section, Paul briefly addressed the problem of diet that he argued in some detail with the Corinthian community (1 Cor 8); could a believer knowingly eat meat that had been offered to idols? In first century pagan society, the poor ate a vegetarian diet with occasional meals of meat from animals sacrificed at religious festivals; such communal meals not only represented civic spirit (a local community gathered together for a local holiday), it also symbolized communion with the gods. Hence, eating meat for some Christians (the "weak") represented participation in idolatry; these believers abstained from consuming meat of any kind. In Rom 14:1-3, the apostle did not address whether the faithful could eat meat in good conscience. Instead, he tackled the effects of the controversy; the vegetarians faced off against the meat eaters, judging each other harshly and tearing the community apart.

This section formed a chaistic structure in the following way:

Step A1: The vegetarian and the meat eater should not judge each other (Rom 14:3)

Step B: Do all things for the Lord (Rom 14:4-9).

Step A2: People on either side of the controversy ultimately stand before God who judges all things (Rom 14:10)

Notice Paul set up the "B" step within the hierarchy of the "master-servant.' One servant had no right to criticize another, since both only had worth before their own masters (Rom 14:4). The apostle expanded the principle of non-judgment not only to diet but to civic holidays themselves (Rom 14:5-6). He placed both holidays and their diet under the greater umbrella of life itself; in life or in death, the believer belonged to his Master, the Lord (Rom 14:7-9).

Paul underscored a greater principle that argued against internal strife. The Christian God was the God of all; his community was the universal gathering. So, the apostle insisted, the community should welcome everyone regardless of conscience (Rom 14:1). Any disagreement over lifestyle should not result in schism; instead, the community should be grateful for diversity (Rom 14:6). In the end, no matter what believers held on the questions of diet and holidays, they would stand before the "judgment throne of God" and worship him (Rom 14:10-11, quoting Isa 45:23). So, all will be responsible to God himself and should not cause others controversy (Rom 14:12-13).

b. Step B1: Responsibility for the "weak" (14:14-23)

14 I know and am persuaded in the Lord Jesus that nothing is unclean of itself; except that to him who considers anything to be unclean, to him it is unclean. 15 Yet if because of food your brother is grieved, you walk no longer in love. Don't destroy with your food him for whom Christ died. 16 Then don't let your good be slandered, 17 for God's Kingdom is not eating and drinking, but righteousness, peace, and joy in the Holy Spirit. 18 For he who serves Christ in these things is acceptable to God and approved by men. 19 So then, let's follow after things which make for peace, and things by which we may build one another up. 20 Don't overthrow God's work for food's sake. All things indeed are clean, however it is evil for that man who creates a stumbling block by eating. 21 It is good to not eat meat, drink wine, nor do anything by which your brother stumbles, is offended, or is made weak.

22 Do you have faith? Have it to yourself before God. Happy is he who doesn't judge himself in that which he approves. 23 But he who doubts is condemned if he eats, because it isn't of faith; and whatever is not of faith is sin.

Above, Paul urged peace in the community; now, he explained how to avoid internal strife. In relation to the scrupulous (the "weak"), he recognized that kosher laws no longer applied to Christians (especially Gentile believers), but "to (those) considering something to be unclean, that (thing is) unclean" (Rom 14:14). However, he and those who recognized that "nothing was unclean" had a responsibility to the "weak" to avoid scandal, otherwise they bore the sin of the scandal (Rom 14:15-16). Those who saw the bigger picture were responsible for implementing the vision. The peace and the Spirit defined the eschatological community, not its diet (Rom 14:17); its reputation depended upon its internal cohesion and its spirituality (Rom 14:18). So, Paul promoted the principles of peace and community building, while condemning judgment (Rom 14:19-20). In this sense, he shifted the notion of kosher away from food towards faith; he defined that which strengthens the community as "clean" (even to the beatitude of non-judgment in Rom 14:22) and implied that which caused scandal as "unclean," hence, sinful (Rom 14:21-23).

c. Step B2: Build up the weak (15:1-6)

1 Now we who are strong ought to bear the weaknesses of the weak, and not to please ourselves. 2 Let each one of us please his neighbor for that which is good, to be building him up. 3 For even Christ didn't please himself. But, as it is written, "The reproaches of those who reproached you fell on me." 4 For whatever things were written before were written for our learning, that through perseverance and through encouragement of the Scriptures we might have hope. 5 Now the God of perseverance and of encouragement grant you to be of the same mind with one another according to Christ Jesus, 6 that with one accord you may with one mouth glorify the God and Father of our Lord Jesus Christ.

In Rom 14:13-23, Paul held those who realized nothing in creation was unclean should defer to those who found scandal in celebrating civic holidays and eating meat offered to idols (the "weak"). In this section, he shifted from the "what" of the controversy to "how" such deference could be achieved. The apostle taught those with knowledge to turn their focus from themselves and place their focus on others, just as Christ did (Rom 15:1-2). In quoting Psa 69:9 (Rom 15:3), he invoked his sense of salvation history. What authors wrote in Scripture centuries ago was meant directly for the community's edification (Rom 15:4). Within a petition to God, he pointed to the message of divine endurance and comfort; the Lord wanted the community to find unity so, that with one voice, the faithful could offer praise to the Father (Rom 15:5-6). In other words, common worship, not apologetics, was the "end game" for the church at Rome.

d. Step A2: Welcome each other, Jew ans Gentile, as Christ welcomed you (15:7-13)

7 Therefore accept one another, even as Christ also accepted you, to the glory of God. 8 Now I say that Christ has been made a servant of the circumcision for the truth of God, that he might confirm the promises given to the fathers, 9 and that the Gentiles might glorify God for his mercy. As it is written,

Therefore I will give praise to you among the Gentiles
and sing to your name."

10 Again he says,

Rejoice, you Gentiles, with his people."

11 Again,

Praise the Lord, all you Gentiles!
Let all the peoples praise him."

12 Again, Isaiah says,

There will be the root of Jesse,
he who arises to rule over the Gentiles;
in him the Gentiles will hope."

13 Now may the God of hope fill you with all joy and peace in believing, that you may abound in hope in the power of the Holy Spirit.

Paul closed out his argument for equality between Jew and Gentile with an imperative: admit each other into fellowship as Christ did for the believers in the community, all for the glory of God (Rom 15:7). Christ served his fellow Israelites to fulfill God's promises in Scripture; as a result, the Gentiles also glorified the Lord implicitly because Paul and others like him preached the Good News (Rom 15:8-12, quoting Psa 18:49, Deu 32:43, Psa 117:1, Isa 11:10; notice the string of Scripture references supported Paul's contention that a mixed Jewish-Christian community of believers had the primary function of worship mentioned in Rom 15:7). He concluded with another prayer petition that paralleled Rom 15:5-6; this time he asked God to bless the faithful with joy and peace so they could have hope in the Spirit (Rom 15:13).

C. Paul's plans and request for prayer, benedictions, greetings (15:14-16:23)

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1. Paul's apologia, his future plans and requests for prayers (15:14-32)

14 I myself am also persuaded about you, my brothers, that you yourselves are full of goodness, filled with all knowledge, able also to admonish others. 15 But I write the more boldly to you in part as reminding you, because of the grace that was given to me by God, 16 that I should be a servant of Christ Jesus to the Gentiles, serving as a priest of the Good News of God, that the offering up of the Gentiles might be made acceptable, sanctified by the Holy Spirit. 17 I have therefore my boasting in Christ Jesus in things pertaining to God. 18 For I will not dare to speak of any things except those which Christ worked through me for the obedience of the Gentiles, by word and deed, 19 in the power of signs and wonders, in the power of God's Spirit; so that from Jerusalem and around as far as to Illyricum, I have fully preached the Good News of Christ; 20 yes, making it my aim to preach the Good News, not where Christ was already named, that I might not build on another's foundation. 21 But, as it is written,

They will see, to whom no news of him came.
They who haven't heard will understand."

While he recognized the ability and temperament of the Christians in Rome to build up their community (Rom 15:14), Paul defended his letter with an appeal to his status as an apostle. He received the gift ("grace") from God to serve the Gentiles like a temple minister who formed these former pagans into an acceptable offering to God by the power of the Spirit (Rom 15:15-16). In this ministry, he boasted of Christ and his efforts to bring the Gentiles to the Lord "by word and deed, in the power of signs and wonders, in the power of the Spirit of God" (Rom 15:17-19). He preached far and wide, even hoping to evangelize in "virgin" territories (Rom 15:19-21, quoting Isa 52:15, implying that if he preached where others went before him, his efforts might be in vain).

22 Therefore also I was hindered these many times from coming to you, 23 but now, no longer having any place in these regions, and having these many years a longing to come to you, 24 whenever I travel to Spain, I will come to you. For I hope to see you on my journey, and to be helped on my way there by you, if first I may enjoy your company for a while. 25 But now, I say, I am going to Jerusalem, serving the saints. 26 For it has been the good pleasure of Macedonia and Achaia to make a certain contribution for the poor among the saints who are at Jerusalem. 27 Yes, it has been their good pleasure, and they are their debtors. For if the Gentiles have been made partakers of their spiritual things, they owe it to them also to serve them in material things. 28 When therefore I have accomplished this, and have sealed to them this fruit, I will go on by way of you to Spain. 29 I know that when I come to you, I will come in the fullness of the blessing of the Good News of Christ.

30 Now I beg you, brothers, by our Lord Jesus Christ and by the love of the Spirit, that you strive together with me in your prayers to God for me, 31 that I may be delivered from those who are disobedient in Judea, and that my service which I have for Jerusalem may be acceptable to the saints, 32 that I may come to you in joy through the will of God, and together with you, find rest.

Along the way to these new lands (specifically Spain), Paul wanted to visit the community in Rome for fellowship and possible material support (Rom 15:22-24). But first, he had a responsibility to deliver monetary contributions from the communities in Macedonia and Achaia to the mother church in Jerusalem; he stated his obligation as a material repayment from these communities for the spiritual gifts that had its origin in Jerusalem (Rom 15:25-27). Only when he fulfilled his responsibility could he find the freedom to travel westward "in the fullness of Christ's blessing" (Rom 15:28-29).

15:22-29 gave us an approximate time frame for the authorship of Romans. It matched the events described in Acts 20:1-3 where Paul left Macedonia on his third missionary journey and spent three months "in Greece" (most likely Corinth) on route to Jerusalem. If the apostle penned the letter in the area, then he composed in the winter of 56-57 CE.

After he laid out his plans, Paul asked for prayers that his efforts might find success and speed his journey to the church in Rome (Rom 15:30-32).

2. Minor Chiasmus A1: Peace benediction (15:33)

33 Now the God of peace be with you all. Amen.

3. Minor Chiasmus B: Miscellaneous greetings (16:1-19)

1 I commend to you Phoebe, our sister, who is a servant of the assembly that is at Cenchreae, 2 that you receive her in the Lord in a way worthy of the saints, and that you assist her in whatever matter she may need from you, for she herself also has been a helper of many, and of my own self.

3 Greet Prisca and Aquila, my fellow workers in Christ Jesus, 4 who risked their own necks for my life, to whom not only I give thanks, but also all the assemblies of the Gentiles. 5 Greet the assembly that is in their house. Greet Epaenetus, my beloved, who is the first fruits of Achaia to Christ. 6 Greet Mary, who labored much for us. 7 Greet Andronicus and Junia, my relatives and my fellow prisoners, who are notable among the apostles, who were also in Christ before me. 8 Greet Amplias, my beloved in the Lord. 9 Greet Urbanus, our fellow worker in Christ, and Stachys, my beloved. 10 Greet Apelles, the approved in Christ. Greet those who are of the household of Aristobulus. 11 Greet Herodion, my kinsman. Greet them of the household of Narcissus, who are in the Lord. 12 Greet Tryphaena and Tryphosa, who labor in the Lord. Greet Persis, the beloved, who labored much in the Lord. 13 Greet Rufus, the chosen in the Lord, and his mother and mine. 14 Greet Asyncritus, Phlegon, Hermes, Patrobas, Hermas, and the brothers who are with them. 15 Greet Philologus and Julia, Nereus and his sister, and Olympas, and all the saints who are with them. 16 Greet one another with a holy kiss. The assemblies of Christ greet you.

a. Pheobe, a deacon (16:1-2)

1 I commend to you Phoebe, our sister, who is a servant of the assembly that is at Cenchreae, 2 that you receive her in the Lord in a way worthy of the saints, and that you assist her in whatever matter she may need from you, for she herself also has been a helper of many, and of my own self.

In Rom 16:1-2, Paul commended Phoebe to the faithful in the Eternal City. He described her as a "deacon" ("diakonos" in Greek) at the community of Cenchreae. Scholars dispute whether the apostle employed the term "deacon" in an official sense (referring to an ordained office) or a generic sense (equating the term with "servant," its common meaning). But did these scholars superimpose a later development of the term on to this passage? In Acts 6:1-6, the apostles simply laid hands on seven men to distribute food to the poor; only later did this title develop into an ordained office with a liturgical function. Strip away that development and what remains? Could Paul have used the term to describe a rich woman who found a place in the community as a patron and helper (with or without the leaders laying hands on her)?

Paul recognized Phoebe as a personal patron, indicating she was a woman of means who could afford to care for others and to travel. He urged the believers in Rome to receive her with all due respect and hospitality. Many scholars noted her connection with Cenchreae, a community in the vicinity of Corinth; they hold this strengthened the theory that Paul wrote Romans at Corinth and that Phoebe herself delivered the letter. Paul could have met her when he ritually cut his hair in Cenchreae (Acts 18:18).

b. Priscilla and Aquila (16:3-4)

3 Greet Prisca and Aquila, my fellow workers in Christ Jesus, 4 who risked their own necks for my life, to whom not only I give thanks, but also all the assemblies of the Gentiles.

In Rom 16:3-16, Paul listed 26 different people in his greetings section. Two pairs of names stood out for modern scholars. First, he mentioned the prominent married couple: Prisca (the wife also know as Priscilla) and Aquila (the husband; Rom 16:3). Acts 18:2-3 noted Aquila from Pontus was a Jewish-Christian tent-maker like Paul; Claudius had exiled him along with other Christians from Rome. As a result, he and his wife, Priscilla, resided in Corinth when the apostle encountered them (see 1 Cor 16:19). In Acts 18:18, they traveled with Paul to Ephesus, thus they joined the apostle's entourage for a while. In Acts 18:26, the couple mentored Apollos who gained fame as a Christian missionary. Priscilla and Aquila lived like Paul; they traveled to spread the Good News with some insight and charismatic authority. By the time Paul had written Romans, they had returned to the Empire's capital.

c. Junia, an apostle? (16:7)

7 Greet Andronicus and Junia, my relatives and my fellow prisoners, who are notable among the apostles, who were also in Christ before me.

Paul listed another pair: Andronicus and Junia (Rom 16:7). Some controversy has arisen about Junia's gender, function and relationship. First, Junia was a common feminine name in Latin but rare in Greek, leading some to dispute gender (was Junia a nickname for the male form "Junias?"). However, most scholars assume Junia was a woman since they could safely assume the church at Rome would have contained people with Latin names.

Next, was Junia an apostle? This question turned on the Greek preposition "en" (which one could translate as "among" or "to") in connection with the Greek adjective "episanmos" (meaning "eminent" or "well-known"). So, one could translate Rom 16:7 as "eminent among the apostles" or " well-known to the apostles." However, this gave rise to a second question. If she had the status of the former ("eminent among the apostles"), how did she receive the title "apostle" ("one being sent" in Greek) from the Lord? Did she know Jesus when he was alive? Or did she receive a commission in a vision of the risen Lord? Or was she commissioned via a prophetic utterance ("thus says the Lord, 'I sent you...'")? Paul himself mentioned Barnabas (Acts 14:14), Silas and Timothy (1 Thes 1:1; 1 Thes 2:6) and finally Apollos as "apostles. How did they receive the title? Then, a third question arose. Like the question about Phoebe's status as a "diakonos," did Junia function as an "apostle" in formal (official) or informal way (as a helper to her partner Andronicus)?

Finally, the question of her place with Andronicus brought forth the question of relationship, not only with her partner but with Paul. Were Andronicus and Junia married like Priscilla and Aquila? Paul mentioned they lived in confinement, most likely under house arrest that limited their movement since Roman jails only housed those charged with capital crimes. In other words, authorities held them for the charge of public nuisance, not for impiety or, worse, treason for not burning incense before the bust of the emperor (the later were offenses punishable by death). This assumed imperial officials still considered the Christian movement as part of Judaism even into the 50's CE; a decade later they would recognize the Church as a separate entity with the local persecution of the faithful under Nero as reported by Tacitus (56-120 CE) in his Annals. The public nuisance charge matched the report of Suetonius about Claudius' ejection of Jews and the followers of "Chrestus" from Rome; it also dovetailed with Acts 18:3. Since Paul inferred officials jailed them together, they must have had some relationship, either married or familial (brother and sister).

No doubt Paul felt Andronicus and Junia were kindred spirits for two reasons. They believed ("in Christ") before he did and they were countrymen ("suggene" Greek for "fellow citizen"). In other words, they were Jewish Christians since the 30's CE; they could have even lived in Judea during that decade.

The identity of Junia left too many possibilities. We do know she was a Jewish-Christian since the earliest days of the movement. She was most likely married to Andronicus and Roman officials held them under house arrest, possibly from charges concerning the riots in Rome during the reign of Claudius (49 CE). Paul held them in high esteem, either as apostles or among the apostles (or both). Beyond this, we can only speculate.

d. Warning against dissenting teachers (16:17-20)

17 Now I beg you, brothers, look out for those who are causing the divisions and occasions of stumbling, contrary to the doctrine which you learned, and turn away from them. 18 For those who are such don't serve our Lord Jesus Christ, but their own belly; and by their smooth and flattering speech they deceive the hearts of the innocent. 19 For your obedience has become known to all. I rejoice therefore over you. But I desire to have you wise in that which is good, but innocent in that which is evil. 20 And the God of peace will quickly crush Satan under your feet.

Against the backdrop of the greetings, Paul warned the community about those who taught a different theology than Paul (Rom 16:17-18). Implicitly, he inferred the 26 people listed in his greeting were reliable witnesses to the faith. Others, like the Jewish-Christian teachers who insisted upon the inferior position of the Gentiles (Rom 2:1-16) or those who vocally responded to the meat controversy with horror (Rom 14:1-13) caused riffs in the community with faulty logic. The apostle even took a swipe against traveling "missionaries" who presented a smooth exterior only to grift. Paul reassured his audience of their faithfulness, but still wished them to exercise wisdom so that they could recognize evil (Rom 16:19-20).

4. Minor Chiasmus A2: Grace Benediction (Rom 16:20)

The grace of our Lord Jesus Christ be with you.

5. Greetings from those with Paul (16:21-23)

21 Timothy, my fellow worker, greets you, as do Lucius, Jason, and Sosipater, my relatives. 22 I, Tertius, who write the letter, greet you in the Lord. 23 Gaius, my host and host of the whole assembly, greets you. Erastus, the treasurer of the city, greets you, as does Quartus, the brother.

Paul finished this section with greetings from 1) Timothy, his coworker and from 2) Lucius, Jason and Sosipater, fellow Jewish-Christians (Rom 16:21), along with important Christians at his location of authorship: Gaius, host of the house church and Erastus, the city treasurer (even a "brother" Quartus; Rom 16:23). Paul's secretary, Terius, also added his personal greetings (Rom 16:22).

D. Final doxology (16:24 or 16:25-27)

24 The grace of our Lord Jesus Christ be with you all! Amen. [25 Now to him who is able to establish you according to my Good News and the preaching of Jesus Christ, according to the revelation of the mystery which has been kept secret through long ages, 26 but now is revealed, and by the Scriptures of the prophets, according to the commandment of the eternal God, is made known for obedience of faith to all the nations; 27 to the only wise God, through Jesus Christ, to whom be the glory forever! Amen.]

Scholars have fought over these concluding verses. Some surviving manuscripts contained another grace benediction in Rom 16:24: "The grace of the Lord Jesus Christ be with all of you. Amen." Did a scribe repeat Rom 16:20? Or did this verse end the letter? If so, why did most manuscripts end with Rom 16:25-27?

Most scholars saw Rom 16:25-27 as a scribal addition to the letter that attempted to add flourish by piling on platitudes. It went on too long, compared to the shorter endings in other authentic Pauline letters. While thematically consistent with this and other epistles, these verses extended the doxology without any structure; it had a style that more closely matched that of the disputed letters of Paul (Colassians, Ephesians, 1 & 2 Timothy and Titus). For example, the "revelation of the mystery" (Rom 16:25) reflected such disclosure as immediate and universal (Rom 16:26, see Eph 3;3-6, Eph 3;9; Col 1:26-27, Col 2:2) instead of particular to the future of Israel (1 Cor 2:7, 1 Cor 15:51). It required God-given strength (Rom 16:25; Eph 3:14-21), a subject lacking in the more authentic missives. So, thematic considerations argue for Rom 16:24 as Paul's original ending and Rom 16:25-27 as a paragraph added by a scribe.

As a side note, some manuscripts placed 16:25-27 as 14:24-26. This was still problematic. The doxology disrupted the flow of the passage about the "weak" in the community. This, too, must have been a scribal insertion.

V. Conclusion.

In Romans, St. Paul addressed the problems many Christian communities faced in the mid 50's CE. How should Jewish and Gentile believers live together? What was the status of each in the Church? As time went on, Jewish leaders died and Gentiles rose to prominence. But the thought of the apostle undergird further theological development; the Church gathered together those saved in a faith relationship with Christ. The apostle, then, not only defined the notion of salvation for Christians, he helped form the very notion of Church.

Sources

Harrington, Daniel J. Sacra Pagina Series. Liturgical Press, 1991.

Stergiou, Costas. TheWord.net. Computer software. Vers. 5.0. TheWord.net. 2015. 2015 <http://theword.net/>.

NET Bible. theWord.net module. The NET Bible. 2015 <https://netbible.com/>.

Novum Testamentum Graece. theWord.net module. Vers. NA27. <theWord.net>.